AJVlANUALOF 


AF\CH/EOLOGY 

7 

r 

/V\AXIME  (JJLLIGNON 


THE     FINE-ART     LIBRARY. 

EDITED    BY    JOHN    C.   L,  SPARKES, 

Principal  of  the  National  Art    Training  School,  South  Kensington 
A  fuse  tun. 


A  MANUAL 


GREEK  ARCHEOLOGY 


MAX  I  ME     COLLIGNON, 

Formerly  Member   of  the  French  School  at   Athens ;    Deputy  Professor  of 
Archaeology  in  ihe  Faculty  of  Letters  of  Paris  (Sorbon-iie}. 


i  R  A  N  S  L  A  T  E  I)     I!  Y 


JOHN     HENRY     WRIGHT, 

Associate  Professor  of  Greek  in  Dartmouth  College,   Hanover, 
Nciu  Hampshire,    U.S.A. 


CASSELL    &    COMPANY,    LIMITED: 

LONDON,  PARIS,  NEW  YORK  &  MELBOURNE. 
1886. 


[ALL  RIGHTS  RESERVED.] 


CONTENTS. 


PREFACE  TO  THE  ENGLISH  TRANSLATION 


Book  J'trst. 

The  Origin  of  Greek  Art. 

L'HAI1. 
I.     GR.KCO-l'ELASGIC    PERIOD       ...  I 

II.  ORIENTAL  SOURCES  OF  GREEK  ART  ..         14 

HI.  THE  GR.ECO-ORIENTAL  PERIOD     ...  ...       27 


TQoofe    Scconli. 
Architecture, 

I.  GR.ECO-PELASGIC  MONUMENTS       ...  ...       35 

II.   THE  ORDERS  OF  GREEK  ARCHITECTURE— THEIR  ORIGIN 

AND  PRINCIPLES    ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...       40 

III.  THE  MONUMENTS  OF  ARCHITECTURE  62 


I.   IIKM     PKRIOD. —  LK;F.M>\KY    r.i.i;i.\MNc,x,    DOWN     10 

IIIK  CI.OSK  or   IIIF  SKYF.MH  ('I:\ILUY   n.r.  ioi 

II.  SLCOND  I'F.kioi).  — Tin-:  I'KIMITIYI.  MASTLKS  i  IMM 
IIIK  F.ND  OK  THF.  SKVKN  rn  CKVITKY  ».c.  10  nil-. 
SixTiF.ru  OLYMPIAD  (540  n.r.)...  ...  ...  iud 

III.  TIIIKD  I'KKit  >i>.  • — ARCHAIC  SITI.I-TURK  :  i  UOM  IIIK 
SIXIIKIH  ID  -iiiK  KICHTIETH  OLYMPIAD  (540  )*..(•. 

460  i:.c.)  12,  i 

I\'.     FOCRIH     rKRIOD.--SCUI.nLKK     FROM      IIIK     K ICHT1 K  Til 

TO  THK  NiM-.i  Y- SIXTH  OLYMPIAD  (460  i;.c. — 396  i:.c.)     140 
V.    FIFTH    I'KUIOD. — To   THK   AI.KXANDKINK   ACK. -- -FROM 

THK     XlNF.TY  -  SIXTH      TO     THK     OM  -1  I  U  N  DR  KI )  AN  I  )- 

T \VF.NTIKTH  OLYMPIAD   (396  r..r.     292  n. <•.)...  1-14 

\'I.  SIXLII  I'KRU'D. — I  IKI.I.F.M.STIC  AIM. — FROM  THK  OM-:- 
IfUXDRED- AND -TWENTIETH  <>I.Y.MPIAD  TO  IMF 
ROMAN  CONC^UEST,  THK  ONE-HUNDRF.I>-A\D-FIITY- 

FlC.HTII    Ol.YMPIAIJ     (292    P..C. —  146    ll.C.)  ...  212 

Ylf.  SIKI..I:  AND  VOTIVE  SCUI.PTURKS  ..  221 


$ ounf), 

'J  err  a- cot  t a  Figurines  ..          ..  ...  ..239 


CONTENTS.  Vil 

13oofe  J'iftf). 

Painted  Vases. 

CHAP.  PAf.F 

I.  GENERAL  QUESTIONS  IN  THE  HISTORY  OF  CERAMIC  ART  261 

II.  THE  FORMS  AND  TECHNIQUE  or  PAINTED  VASES       ...  266 

III.  CLASSIFICATION  or  PAINTED  VASES         279 

IV.  TERKA-COTTA  PLAQUES  WITH  PAINTINGS           ...         ...  322 


Siitf). 

Xitinismatics  and  Glyptics. 
I.  NUMISMATICS  ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...     325 

II.  GLYPTICS  ...         ...     335 


ISoofe  Stbcntl). 

Bronzes  and  Jewels. 
I.  BRONZES  ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...     343 

II.  JEWELLERY       ...  ...         ..          ...     363 


PREFACE  TO  THE  ENGLISH 
TRANSLATION. 


MODERN  culture  owes  to  the  civilisation  of  the  ancient 
Greeks  a  profound  debt,  which  is  at  once  direct  and 
indirect.  The  direct  debt  has  arisen  principally  from 
the  place  long  held  by  Greek  studies  in  our  system  of 
education.  The  indirect  debt,  which  is  more  subtle 
and  less  easily  recognised,  is  that  of  many  forces, 
inspirations,  and  models,  in  art,  literature,  and  science, 
that  have  been  transmitted  to  us  from  a  remote  past, 
through  various  peoples  and  through  diverse  civili- 
sations. In  our  schools,  and  to  a  certain  extent  still 
in  our  colleges  and  universities,  we  understand  by 
Greek  studies  almost  exclusively  the  study  of  the 
language  and  literature  of  the  ancient  Hellenes.  But 
the  Hellenic  spirit — and  it  is  this  only  that  gives  life 
to  these  studies — has  revealed  itself  in  a  novel  and 
distinctly  different  manner,  and  with  equal  if  not  with 
greater  vividness,  delicacy,  and  force,  in  the  manifold 
remains  of  Greek  art,  from  the  rudest  specimens  of 
the  potter's  industry,  up  to  the  glorious  monuments 
due  to  the  genius  of  the  sculptor  and  architect  in  the 
service  of  religion.  Greek  studies,  then,  that  leave 


X  (iUKKK    ARC  I  !.!•.(  )!.<><  ;Y. 

out  of  view   the  art  of  the  ancient  (i reeks,  are  one- 
sided, fragmentary,  and  essentially  defective. 

It  is  for  reasons  like  the  above  that  a  cordial 
welcome  should  be  extended,  not  only  by  lovers  of 
Greek  art,  but  also  by  students  and  teachers  of  Greek, 
to  such  a  book  as  M.  Collignon's  handbook,  which  aims 
modestly  to  introduce  the  reader  to  these  monuments 
of  art,  to  "orient"  him,  as  it  were,  both  as  to  their 
general  character  and  as  to  their  historical  relations 
and  connections. 

A  few  worJs  on  the  scope  and  method  of  the 
book,  in  part  taken  from  the  author's  preface  to  the 
French  edition,  are  perhaps  not  out  of  place. 

Forming  one  of  a  scries  of  educational  works  on 
art  (Bibliothiqne  de  F Enseignewent  dcs  Beanx-Arts),  it 
is  above  all  an  elementary  text-book,  designed  for 
pupils  in  schools  and  colleges,  and  for  amateurs  in  the 
study  of  art.  The  results  of  archaeological  research  arc- 
as  a  rule  recorded  in  elaborate  scientific  treatises  or 
journals  difficult  of  access  to  the  average  reader. 
These  works,  even  when  not  in  an  unfamiliar  language, 
arc  also  commonly  so  technical  in  character  as  to 
disconcert  and  bewilder  the  beginner  in  his  studies. 
Though  there  are,  in  some  of  the  departments  of 
classical  archaeology — as  in  sculpture,  and  in  archi- 
tecture— and  even,  for  certain  groups  of  departments, 
excellent  handbooks  of  the  nature  of  introductions, 
there  seems  to  be  no  book  in  English,  in  line  with 
recent  research,  which  gives  a  bird's-eye  view,  as  it 


PREFACE.  xi 

were,  of  the  whole  field,  especially  of  the  archaeology 
of  Greek  art.  The  present  book  endeavours  to  supply 
this  deficiency. 

After  a  brief  resume  of  the  question  as  to  the 
beginnings  of  Greek  art,  and  as  to  the  early  influences 
that  moulded  it  more  or  less,  its  several  branches  are 
passed  successively  in  review,  the  usual  classifications 
being  retained.  In  each  of  these  branches  of  Greek 
archaeology,  the  monuments  are  treated  in  chrono- 
logical order,  selections  from  the  more  important 
receiving  special  attention.  This  historical  study  of 
the  several  branches  independently,  impresses  upon 
the  reader  the  important  truths  that,  while  the  mani- 
festations of  the  artistic  spirit  among  the  Greeks  are 
manifold  and  varied,  they  are  all  subject  to  the  same 
principles  and  to  the  same  laws  of  development. 
Each  illustrates  the  other,  and  all  faithfully  mirror 
the  same  native  artistic  genius.  The  chronological 
classification  has  also  the  advantage  of  coinciding 
with  the  classifications  of  works  of  ancient  art 
commonly  adopted  in  our  museums  and  other  col- 
lections. The  book  will  thus  aid  the  objects  in 
the  museums  in  telling  their  own  story  clearly  and 
consecutively. 

The  small  size  of  the  volume,  as  well  as  its  aim, 
precludes  the  introduction  of  any  extensive  or  ex- 
haustive scientific  apparatus.  In  the  brief  biblio- 
graphies printed  at  the  head  of  most  chapters,  a 
selection  only  from  the  more  important  works  on  the 


XII  r.RKKK    AKCH.liOLOCY. 

topics  reviewed  in  the  pages  following  is  made,  for 
the  benefit  of  readers  who  may  wish  to  read  further. 

The  translation,  the  first  draft  of  which  was  written 
by  Mrs.  Wright,  is  based  upon  the  last  French 
edition,  with  numerous  manuscript  additions  and 
corrections  kindly  furnished  by  the  author.  In  re- 
vising the  translation,  and  in  comparing  it  with  the 
French,  I  have  made  a  number  of  changes  in  the 
text  ;  but  this  has  been  done  only,  upon  consultation 
with  M.  Collignon,  and  in  no  instance  without  his 
consent.  The  bibliography  has  been  expanded  here 
and  there,  and  a  very  few  notes  have  been  added. 

It  is  hoped  that  this  little  book,  which  seems  in 
itself  happily  to  illustrate  the  sense  of  proportion  in 
all  things  so  characteristic  of  the  art  it  reviews,  will 
do  much  to  axvaken  and  to  deepen  interest  in  the  art 
of  the  ancient  Greeks,  among  those  hitherto  un- 
acquainted with  it.  Thus  will  be  thrown  a  new 
light,  not  only  upon  the  pages  of  familiar  authors, 
but  also  into  our  conceptions  of  the  life  and  genius 
of  this  wonderfully  gifted  people. 

JOHN    HKNKV  WRIGHT. 

Dartmouth   College, 

Hanover,  New  Hampshire,    U.S.A. 
February,    1886. 


GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY. 

10ok  Jitst. 

THE  ORIGIN  OF  GREEK  ART. 


CHAPTER    I. 

GR/ECO-PELASGIC    PERIOD. 

SCHLIEMANN  :  Troy,  1875  ;  Ilios,  1881  ;  Troja,  1884. 
FR.  LENORMANT  :  Les  Antiquites  de  la  Troade,  1875. 
FOUQUE  :  Rapport  sur  line  Mission  scientifique  a  Vile  de  Santorin  :  Archives  des 

Missions  scientijiques,  Vol.  IV.,  and  Santorin  ct  ses  Eruptions,  1871. 
JEBB  :  Journal  of  Hellenic  Studies,  Vols.  II.,  III. 
SCHLIEMANN  :  Mycetue,  1878;   Tiryns,  1885. 
FR.    LENORMANT:    Les    Antiquites    de     Myccnes  :    Gazette    des    Beaux-Arts, 

February,  April,  1879. 

MII.CHHOKER  :  Die  Anf'dnge  dcr  Kunst  in  Griechenland,  1883. 
DUMONT  ET  CHAPLAIN:  Les  Ccratniques  de  la  Grcce,  1881,  1883^    (In  course  of 

publication.) 


§    I.    THE     ANTIQUITIES     OF     HISSARLIK     AND     OF     SANTORIN. 

TlIE  most  ancient  monuments  left  on  the  soil  of 
Greece,  both  Asiatic  and  European,  by  her  primitive 
inhabitants,  date  from  a  time  when  as  yet  Greece  had 
no  history.  The  empires  of  Egypt  and  Assyria  had 
passed  through  long  ages  of  prosperity  before  the 
early  inhabitants  of  Greece  had  emerged  from  a  low 
grade  of  civilisation.  Occasional  scattered  references  in 
documents  written  in  Egypt,  a  few  mythological 
E 


<;RKI:K  AKCII.I-'.OLOCV. 

legends,  and  monuments  recovered  in  successful  ex- 
cavations, are  the  only  materials  at  the  service  of  the 
student  of  this  obscure  period. 

Before  the  final  establishment  of  the  Dorians  in 
Peloponnesus,  that  great  historical  fact  which  closely 
followed  the  Trojan  \Yar,  we  catch  glimpses  of  a 
long  succession  of  migrations  and  of  conflicts,  the 
theatre  of  which  was  in  the  countries  bordering  upon 
the  /Egcan  Sea.  The  great  Aryan  migration  from 
the  East  had  in  Asia  Minor  separated  into  three 
groups.  One,  crossing  .the  Hellespont  and  passing 
through  Macedonia,  had  settled  down  in  the  moun- 
tainous regions  of  Macedonia  and  Thrace  ;  here  arose 
the  Hellenic  tribes  that  later  descended  into  Hellas 
proper.  A  second  group  had  established  itself  on  the 
table-lands  of  Phrygia,  whence  it  did  not  emerge.  A 
third  finally  occupied  the  coasts  of  Asia  Minor,  and 
from  thence  colonised  the  islands  of  the  yEgcan  and 
a  part  of  continental  Greece.  This  is  the  Pelasgic 
stock  which  the  Greeks  themselves  regarded  as 
aboriginal,  and  whose  monuments  bear  witness  to 
a  high  antiquity.  Professor  Curtius  recognises  in 
them,  not  without  reason,  the  ancestors  of  the 
people  whom  he  calls  the  Oriental  Greeks  : — -"  \Ye 
give  to  the  maritime  people  of  Asia  Minor,  to  those 
at  least  who  belonged  to  the  Phrygo-Pelasgic  stock, 
the  name  of  Oriental  Greeks."  When  the  Hellenic 
tribes,  the  Achajans,  Dorians,  lonians,  and  yEolians, 
left  Phthiotis  (in  Southern  Thessaly),  and  spread  ox-ci- 
tric surface  of  Greece,  they  cither  drove  from  it,  or 
reduced  to  servitude,  the  Pelasgic  inhabitants. 


THE   ORIGIN    OF   GREEK    ART.  3 

These  Pelasgians,  undoubtedly  closely  related  to 
the  Hellenes,  appear  in  history  long  before  them. 
Egyptian  monuments,  as  early  as  the  eighteenth 
dynasty,  make  mention  of  them,  and  in  the  reign  of 
Seti  and  of  Ramcscs  II.  (nineteenth  dynasty)  they  are 
recorded  as  taking  part  in  the  expeditions  made 
against  Egypt  by  the  Khetas  (Hittites)  of  Syria  and 
by  the  Libyans  of  Africa. 

Little  would  be  known  of  the  state  of  the  civili- 
sation of  this  early  people,  if  recent  and  most  import- 
ant excavations  had  not  brought  to  light  materials 
and  documents  that  are  entirely  new.  The  dis- 
coveries at  Hissarlik  and  at  Santorin,  those  at  Mycenae 
and  at  Spata,  reveal  to  us  a  civilisation  that  must  have 
been  common  to  the  whole  of  the  ancient  Greek 
world.  This  Grasco-Pelasgic  civilisation  extended  to 
all  the  people  occupying  the  basin  of  the  yEgean 
Sea,  who  by  means  of  an  active  coasting  trade  were 
continually  in  close  relations  with  each  other.  It  is  im- 
possible to  fix,  with  perfect  exactness,  the  date  of  the 
monuments  discovered.  These  monuments,  however, 
may  be  classified  in  two  principal  groups,  that  of 
Hissarlik  and  of  Santorin,  on  the  one  hand,  which 
carries  us  back  to  the  very  earliest  times  ;  and,  on  the 
other  hand,  that  of  Mycenae  and  of  Spata,  belonging 
to  a  more  recent  epoch,  where  Oriental  influences 
begin  to  appear. 

The  objects  found  by  Schlicmann  near  the  village 

of   Hissarlik,    in    the     Troad,    belong,    it    seems,    to 

the    earliest     civilisation.       The     important     objects 

discovered  here,  which  their  discoverer  would  assign 

B  2 


4  <  •  K  I  [•:  K 

to  the  Homeric  age,  have  given  rise  to  much  dis- 
cussion. Schlicmann  exhumed  the  ruins  of  several 
superimposed  cities.  In  the  most  ancient  ruins, 
which  showed  evidence  of  a  conflagration,  the  ex- 
plorer believed  he  had  found  the  traces  of  Homeric 
Ilium,  and  he  gave  the  name  of  the  Treasure  of 
Priam  to  a  rich  collection  of  barbaric  jewellery,  con- 
taining vases  of  gold  and  of  silver,  beads  of  cast 
gold,  etc.,  which  were  rescued  from  the  debris.  The 
identification  of  the  ruins  near  Ilissarlik  with  the 
Troy  of  Homer  is  far  from  being  accepted  without 
question.  Certain  scholars  still  place  the  city  of  Priam 
near  Bunarbashi,  following  the  opinion  advocated  in 
J/88  by  Lechcvalier.  Ilissarlik  would  thus  mark  the 
situation  of  Ilium  of  the  Romans,  or  1/iiti/i  rcceiis, 
which  was  often  destroyed  and  rebuilt  at  the  time  of 
the  /Eolians,  of  the  Lydians,  of  Lysimachus,  and  of 
the  Cajsars. 

Nevertheless,  the  view  which  places  Homer's 
Troy  at  Ilissarlik  is  very  plausible.  The  beds  of 
debris  there  accumulated,  to  the  depth  of  sixteen 
metres,  prove  that  for  ages  a  dense  population  had 
inhabited  the  Hill  of  Ilissarlik  ;  furthermore,  this 
place  is  nearer  the  sea  than  Bunarbashi,  and  thus  is 
more  in  harmony  with  the  scenes  and  situations 
presented  in  Homer.* 

As  to  the  objects  found  at  Ilissarlik,  it  is  im- 
possible to  see  in  them,  as  would  Dr.  Schlicmann,  the 
remains  of  the  civilisation  described  in  Homer.  They 

*    Compare   (i.    Perrot,     /.,s   Dccotivcrtcs    <in    l^r.    Schlitmann    ii 
Troic  ct  Myclne*,  a  lecture  at  the  Sorbonnc,  March  19,  iSSi. 


THE   ORIGIN    OF   GREEK   ART.  5 

belong  to  a  semi-barbaric  age,  and  the  people  that 
made  them  hardly  knew  the  use  of  the  metals.  No 
trace  of  Egyptian  or  of  Babylonian  influence  can  be 
detected  in  them,  nor  again  anything  truly  Hellenic. 
The  pottery,  in  particular,  is  entirely  hand-moulded, 
and  is  very  primitive.  In  its  technique  it  recalls  the 
pottery  found  beneath  the  tufa  in  ancient  Latiuin, 
and  the  vases  of  Santorin  anterior  to  the  eruption. 
The  subjects  with  which  it  is  decorated  are  childish 
representations  of  animals,  and  the  vases  themselves, 
in  their  outlines,  rudely  imitate  the  human  figure. 

Before  the  sixteenth  century  E.G.  (about  B.C.  2000. 
according  to  Fouque),  the  island  of  Thera,  one  of  the 
Cyclades,  was  disturbed  by  a  volcanic  eruption  ;  the 
central  portion  sank,  leaving  only  a  circular  fringe 
formed  by  the  islands  nowknown  as  Santorin,  Therasia, 
and  Aspronisi.  Excavations  carried  on  at  Therasia 
and  at  Santorin  in  1866 — 7,  brought  to  light  the 
ruins  of  habitations  built  before  the  eruption.  In 
the  midst  of  the  debris  of  rudely  constructed  houses, 
under  a  mass  of  pumiceous  tufa,  were  recovered 
many  objects  used  in  daily  life,  hand-mills,  little 
troughs,  etc.,  and,  in  particular,  vases  of  primitive 
style,  with  swelling  necks  imitating  female  forms. 
Objects  in  the  same  style,  recovered  above  the 
bed  of  tufa,  proved  that,  a  short  time  after  the 
eruption,  another  population  had  taken  the  place  of 
the  earlier.  This  latter  people,  who  inhabited  the 
island  before  its  occupation  in  the  fifteenth  century 
by  the  Phoenicians,  lived  by  fishing  and  cultivating 
the  ground.  Perhaps  the  ancient  colonists  of  Thera 


O  CRF.r.K    AKCH.KOLCMiY. 

may  be  recognised  in  an  Kgyptian  painting  on  the 
tomb  of  Thothmes  III.,  at  Rekhmara,  where  "the 
people  of  the  isles  of  the  sea  "  bring  gifts  to  Pharaoh  ; 
in  their  hands  they  hold  vases  with  tilted  mouths, 
which  by  their  shape  recall  the  vases  of  Santorin. 

Together  with  the  antiquities  of  Hissarlik,  those  of 
Santorin  constitute,  in  the  present  state  of  archaeo- 
logical science,  the  most  ancient  group.  They  are 
the  earliest  materials  preserved  to  us  for  the  study  of 
industrial  art  among  the  ancient  Greeks.* 

£    2.    THE    AXTIQUITIKS    OF    MYCK.VK,  OF    SPATA,  AND    OF 
RHODES. 

The  second  group  seems  to  belong  to  a  more 
recent  epoch,  and  to  represent  a  more  advanced  phase 
of  civilisation,  the  beginnings  of  which  arc  discernible 
at  Hissarlik  and  Santorin.  The  acropolis  of  Myceno; 
had  long  attracted  the  attention  of  scholars  by  its 
sculptures  of  the  "  Gate  of  Lions,"  and  by  its  ruins  of 
gigantic  walls.  Here,  in  1874,  Dr.  Schliemann  began 
a  series  of  excavations,  which  led  to  the  discovery  of 
five  tombs,  containing  rich  funeral  equipments.  The 
discoveries  at  Myccnnj  arc  a  veritable  treasure. 
Numerous  objects  in  gold,  including  plaques,  or  small 
flat  plates,  done  in  repousse,  crowns,  cups,  funeral 
masks,  imitating  the  human  visage,  and  placed  on  the 
faces  of  the  dead  ;  arms,  objects  in  bronze,  crystal, 

*  No  mention  is  here  made  of  the  monuments  belonging  to  the  nge 
of  stone,  which  have  been  found  in  Greece,  as  in  the  whole  of  Europe. 
Compare  Dumont,  La  Gri-ce  a-'anl  la  I.cgcndc  ct  a-cant  rilistoirc : 
Revue  archtologiqiu,  Vol.  XVI. 


THE   ORIGIN    OF   GREEK   ART.  7 

alabaster,  engraved  stones,  fragments  of  stelcc,  make 
up    this    treasure,   which  comprises   at    least    twenty 


Fl<;.     I.  —  FUNERAL    MASK    IN    GOLD. 

(Found  at  Mycenae.) 

thousand  separate  pieces.  There  is  but  little  iron  ; 
the  metals  most  frequently  used  are  gold,  copper,  and 
bronze. 


8 


CKKKK    ARCH.-KOLOGY. 


Some  of  the  objects  evidently  show  that  they  \vcre 
imported  from  the  East  ;  such  is  the  model  of  the 
temple  with  doves,  of  which  a  drawing  is  given  below 
(Fig.  2)  ;  such  also  are  some  beautiful  golden  vases, 


FlG.    2.— MODEL   OF    A    TEMI'LF.    IN    GOLD. 

(Found  at  Myccnie.) 


decorated  with  radiated  flowers,  and   lions  of  a  con- 
ventional type. 

Oriental  influence  is  likewise  detected  in  the 
golden  stamped  plaques  and  the  bractea;  or  leaves 
of  metal,  which  are  sewn  upon  garments.  But 
while  objects  of  Phoenician  and  Babylonian  origin, 


THE   ORIGIN   OF   GREEK   ART.  9 

imported  by  commerce,  may  be  distinguished  among 
the  treasures  from  Mycense,  the  greater  part  of 
these  treasures  are  the  product  of  local  industry, 


FlG.    3.— GOLDEN    STUD    IX    REPOUSSE". 

(Found  at  Mycenre.) 


and  are  still  rude  and  imperfect  in  style.  Among 
these  are  the  gold  vases,  a  large  breastplate  of  the 
same  material,  and  gold  studs,  hammered  and  cut, 
which  decorated  objects  of  wood  or  leather,  such  as 
the  scabbards  of  swords. 


10  r.RKF.K    ARCH.EOI.OGY. 

These  remains  exhibit  a  very  original  system 
of  ornamentation,  in  which  curves  and  bent  lines  are 
almost  exclusively  employed.  Such  motives  as  the 
following  constantly  occur :  spirals,  floral  rosettes, 
circular  bosses  decorated  by  points  in  relief  or  by 
concentric  circles,  the  foliage  of  aquatic  plants, 
imitations  of  insects  and  of  marine  animals,  as  polypi, 
medusa?,  star-fish,  etc.  This  same  system  prevails  in 
the  pottery,  made  by  the  wheel  and  decorated  with 
paintings,  found  in  tombs  ;  hence  the  local  origin  of 
these  vases  can  no  longer  be  in  doubt. 

It  is  difficult  to  believe,  with  Schlicmann,  that  the 
tombs  discovered  arc  actually  those  of  Agamemnon 
and  his  companions,  murdered  by  /Kgisthus  and 
Clytaemnestra.  It  is  nevertheless  probable  that  these 
monuments  date  from  the  epoch  of  Acluean  domina- 
tion in  Peloponnesus.  Ottfried  M tiller  has  proved 
that  in  the  heroic  age  the  Achaean  race  occupied  the 
greater  part  of  Peloponnesus  and  Thessaly,  and  this 
race  is  perhaps  named  on  Egyptian  monuments  of 
the  fourteenth  century  B.C.  When,  under  the  reign  of 
Merenptah,  the  Mediterranean  nations  made  attempts 
against  Egypt,  the  Achreans  seem  to  have  taken 
part  in  them  ;  their  name  is  possibly  recognisable  in 
"  Akaios "  in  an  inscription  at  Karnak,  beside  the 
supposed  Tyrrhcni,  the  Siculi,  the  Sardinians,  and  the 
Lycians  or  "  Leka."  The  civilisation  of  this  people 
exhibits  a  barbaric  grandeur  ;  gold  is  lavishly  used 
in  the  sepulchres  of  the  Achaean  chiefs  at  Mycen;e. 
But  the  Homeric  age  is  still  in  the  distance  ;  two 
centuries  at  least  separate  the  art  of  Myccnaj  from 


THE   ORIGIN   OF   GREEK    ART. 


I  I 


that  described  by  the  Homeric  poets.  The  objects 
made  by  the  rude  and  primitive  goldsmith  of 
Mycenae  resemble  much  more  the  treasures  dis- 
covered in  the  barbaric  tombs 
in  the  Danube  valley,  es- 
pecially at  Hallstadt,  near 
Vienna,  than  the  works  of 
Greek  art  of  the  subsequent 
period.  The  Achaeans  of 
Mycenae  were  already  in 
commercial  relation  with  the 
Phoenicians,  but  the  time  had 
not  yet  arrived  when  the 
East  was  to  initiate  Greece 
into  the  plastic  arts. 

The  antiquities  of  Mycenae 
are  by  no  means  an  isolated 
fact.  Unique  as  they  appear 
at  the  first  glance,  they  receive 
fresh  light  from  discoveries 
made  in  different  parts  of 
the  Greek  world,  and  above  all 
from  the  excavations  at  Spata, 
a  small  village  in  Attica.* 

Glass-ware,  articles  in  gold  and  ivory,  found  in 
the  subterranean  tombs  of  Spata,  testify  to  an  artistic 
industry  more  advanced  than  appears  at  Mycena-. 
Oriental  influence  is.  here  much  more  apparent. 
The  ivory  head  from  Spata  of  a  bearded  man 


FlG.    4. —  SPECIMEN    OF    AP- 
PLIED   WORK     IN    IVORY. 

(Found  at  Spata.) 


*  Compare  the  list  of  objects  discovered  at  Spata  by  Haussoullier, 
Bulletin  de  Correspondance  helUnique,  Vol.  II. 


12  GRF.KK    ARCII.-KOI.OGV. 

wearing  a  conical  mitre  recalls  very  closely  certain 
Phoenician  statues  found  in  Cyprus,  and  a  design 
represented  on  an  ivory  plaque  from  Spata  —  a 
lion  devouring  an  ox  —  is  not  unlike  one  which 
occurs  both  on  an  engraved  stone  of  I'hcL-nico- 
Sardinian  origin,  and  on  a  Phiunician  bowl  from 
Palestrina.  Hut  while  Oriental  influence  is  here 
more  marked  than  at  Myccna:,  products  of  a  local 
industry  are  also  to  be  recognised,  decorated  with 
designs  suggested  by  the  imitation  of  aquatic  vege- 
tation, or  of  marine  birds,  and  of  fishes,  such  as 
characterises  all  the  Graeco-Pclasgic  ornamentation. 

To  these  discoveries  have  lately  been  added  others 
at  lalysus  on  the  island  of  Rhodes,  in  Cyprus,  of  the 
archaic  tombs  at  Nauplia  in  Argolis,  and  at  Menidhi 
in  Attica.  On  the  strength  of  these  discoveries  we  may 
form  some  idea  of  the  civilisation  common  to  all  the 
inhabitants  of  the  Oriental  shores  of  the  Mediterranean 
before  the  return  of  the  Heracleidae,  the  epochs  of 
which  are  clearly  defined.  Dumont  indicates  the 
following  as  approximate  dates  :  "  before  the  six- 
teenth century,  Hissarlik  ;  sixteenth  century,  San- 
torin  ;  fourteenth,  lalysus ;  thirteenth,  or  twelfth, 
Mycena,-  and  Spata."* 

We  thus  approach  the  Gneco-Oricntal  period, 
which  succeeds  the  previous  civilisation  by  a  very 
natural  transition.  This  is  the  time  when  Greek 
genius  is  becoming  thoroughly  impregnated  with 
Oriental  influences,  but  is  still  feeling  its  way.  The 

*  A.  Dumont  et  Chaplain,  I.es  Ccramiques  ifc  la  G>\\c  frofrf, 
1 88 1,  Icr  fascic. ,  p.  75. 


THE   ORIGIN    OF   GREEK    ART.  13 

trading  settlements  or  emporia  of  the  Phoenicians, 
located  among  the  islands  of  the  yEgean  and  along 
the  shores  of  Peloponnesus,  imported  types  of  work- 
manship which  the  Greek  with  a  naive  spirit  of 
artistic  imitation  endeavoured  to  reproduce.  On  the 
other  hand  Ionian  Greece,  already  half  Oriental, 
bordered  upon  Lydia,  and  came  into  contact  with  the 
peoples  of  Asia  Minor,  whose  art  was  distinctly  and 
thoroughly  under  the  control  of  Assyrian  influences. 
Greek  art  awoke  slowly  and  with  difficulty,  after 
passing  through  a  long  period  of  imitation,  which 
continued  until  towards  the  close  of  the  seventh 
century  B.C.  It  is  important,  therefore,  that  we 
should  examine  the  question  as  to  what  it  owed  to 
the  more  advanced  civilisations  which  gave  it  its 
first  models  for  imitation. 


CHAPTER    II. 

ORIKXTAL    SOl'RCKS    OF    (1RKKK    ART. 

GEKHARD:    I'eber  die  Kutist  tier  riionicier  (Gesainnulte  Akad.     Al'kandlnngcn, 

1867-8). 

RF.NAN  :  Mission  tie  rhenicie,  1864  —  187.1. 

CKSNOLA  :  Cyprus,  1878  ;  Atlas  of  the  Cesiwla  Collection,  Vol.  I.,  1884. 
DE  CHARAS  :  L'A ntigm'tc  historii/uc  et  les  Monuments  t'gyflicns,  1873. 
Ltrsuis  :  Ueber  einige  trgyptische  Kunsl-fonnen  und  Hire  Enttuickelting  (Ab/i. 

Kon.  P  rents.  Akiui.  d.  H'iss.  zit  Berlin). 
DE  LONT.I-^RIEK  :  Musce  Xapolcon  If!.,  1865—1874. 

LAVAKU  :   Nineveh  and  its  Remains,  1850;  and  The  Monuments  of  Xineveh,  1849. 
PLACE  :  Ninive  et  r Assyrie,  1865. 
PKKKOT   and    GUILLAIMI:  :    Exploration   archcologique    de.    la    Galatie  tt  de   /<i 

Bithynie,  1871. 
PEKROT  and  CHII-IEZ  :  Histoire  de  I' Art  dons  FAntiquitf,  1882^  (translated   l>y 

Armstrong,    Egypt,     1883  ;      ChaMira   and  Assyria,    1884 ;    Plwnicia    and 

Cyprus,  1885). 

PKRROT  :  L'Art  de  CAsie  Mincure  (Melanges  if  A  rtJtcologie,  1875). 
SEMI-EK  :  DerStil  in  den  technisclien  und  iektonischen  Kunstcn  (1860-3)    1878-9. 
HEL'ZEY  :  Catalogue  des  Figurines  antiques  dc  Terrc-cuitc  dii  Louvre,  1878. 

THE  Greeks  seem  to  have  attempted  to  render 
the  origin  of  their  art  obscure.  If  we  are  .to  believe 
what  they  say  of  themselves,  they  invented  everything, 
and  the  earlier  writers  on  the  history  of  Greek  art, 
knowing  but  little  of  the  Kast,  have  given  currency 
to  this  erroneous  opinion.  "  Art/'  says  \Yinckel- 
mann,*  "  though  born  much  later  among  the  Greeks 
than  among  the  Orientals,  began  there  with  the 
humblest  elements,  and  it  exhibits  a  simplicity  which 
easily  convinces  us  that  the  Greeks  took  nothing 

*  History  of  Art,  chap.  i.  $£  7,  S. 


THE   ORIGIN    OF    GREEK    ART.  15 

from  the  art  of  other  nations,  but  invented  their 
own  art." 

It  has,  however,  been  thoroughly  proved  since 
Winckelmann's  time,  that  Greek  art  at  the  outset  was 
subject  to  the  influences  of  Oriental  civilisations,  that 
it  owed  to  them  its  first  models,  and  that  it  received 
from  them  a  knowledge  of  methods  of  execution  as 
well  as  technical  skill. 

A  glance,  moreover,  at  the  geographical  situation 
of  Greece  suffices  to  show  us  how  favourably  she  was 
placed  in  respect  to  a  continuous  commerce  with  the 
East  ;  the  islands  scattered  in  the  yEgean  Sea,  at 
distances  apart  so  slight  that  they  could  be  traversed 
in  a  few  hours,  put  Greece  into  direct  communication 
with  Egypt  and  Phoenicia.  Again,  the  great  valleys 
of  Asia  Minor  were  equally  natural  routes  of  travel 
opened  up  in  the  direction  of  Assyria.  These 
material  conditions,  and  the  inferiority  of  Greece,  in 
the  midst  of  the  advanced  and  flourishing  civilisations 
of  older  peoples,  contributed  to  make  her  the  pupil  of 
the  East. 

§   I.    PHOENICIAN    INFLUENCES. 

It  was  upon  the  Greeks  of  the  islands  and  of 
Peloponnesus  that  Phoenician  industries  exercised 
the  most  potent  influence.  The  colonies  of  the 
Sidonians  and  of  the  Tyrians  had  made  of  the  Medi- 
terranean a  Phoenician  sea  :  their  trading  settlements 
and  factories  had  been  established  at  Rhodes,  on 
Crete,  on  the  Cyclades,  and  as  far  west  as  Cythera. 
From  Cythera  the  Phoenicians  passed  over  into  Pelo- 


1 6  (iKF.KK    AK<  II  I.OI.OCY. 

ponncsus  up  to  Amycl;L-  and  Gythium,  ami  advanced 
as  far  even  as  Argolis,  Attica,  and  Bu-otia.  These 
establishments  placed  them  in  close  contact  with 
the  occidental  Greeks,  above  all  with  the  Dorians. 
What  Greek  civilisation  owed  to  these  Phoenicians 
is  generally  recognised  ;  above  all  the  alphabet. 

Phoenician  ships  brought  into  Greece  works  of 
gold,  silver,  glass,  and  ivory,  manufactured  by  the 
glass-workers  and  goldsmiths  of  Tyre  and  Sidon  ; 
painted  vases,  statuettes  of  bronze  and  of  tcrra-cotta, 
like  those  that  were  sold  at  Paphos  in  the  seventh 
century  B.C.,  and  that  served  the  sailors  as  talismans. 
These  objects  became  the  models  for  Greek  workmen, 
who  imitated  them  with  childish  awkwardness.  Thus 
a  whole  class  of  painted  vases  discovered  in  the 
Cyclades  shows  how,  in  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth 
centuries  15. c.,  Greek  potters  copied  the  products  of 
Phoenician  art.  The  Sidonian  and  Tyrian  navigators 
imported  more  than  the  products  of  their  own 
industry. 

By  a  privilege  acquired  in  the  reign  of  Thothmes  I., 
they  had  received  a  monopoly  of  Egyptian  commerce 
with  foreign  lands,  and  they  had  thus  scattered  over 
Greece  articles  of  Egyptian  manufacture  which,  be- 
cause Egypt  was  less  known  to  them,  must  have  made 
a  marked  impression  upon  the  inhabitants.  To  the 
Phoenicians  then  must  be  ascribed  the  double  role, 
that  of  intermediaries  between  Greece  and  Egypt,  and 
that  of  initiators  in  respect  of  their  own  peculiar  in- 
dustries. 

To  what  degree  did   Phoenician   art  act   upon   the 


THE   ORIGIN   OF   GREEK    ART.  I/ 

nascent  art  of  Greece?  It  offered,  for  the  imitation  of 
the  Greeks,  works  of  extremely  mixed  styles.  It  has 
often  been  noticed  that  Phoenician  productions  never 
do  more  than  reflect  the  style  of  Egypt  or  Assyria, 
according  as  each  nation  had  the  political  supremacy 
over  Phoenicia.  The  most  conclusive  proof  of  this  is 
furnished  by  the  monuments  of  Cypriote  art,  one  of 
the  most  important  branches  of  Phoenician  art.  In 
the  discoveries  of  General  Palma  di  Cesnola  in  the 
island  of  Cyprus  we  possess  a  rich  series  of  statues 
coming  from  the  ancient  cities  of  Golgos  and  of 
Idalium.  In  them  may  be  found  predominant  suc- 
cessively the  influences  of  Egypt  and  of  Assyria.  The 
statues  in  Egyptian  style  show  erect  figures  with 
arms  hanging  parallel  to  the  body,  with  the  klaft  or 
Egyptian  pshent  for  head-dress  ;  about  their  loins  are 
worn  the  slienti  or  sloping  short  trousers.  Other 
statues,  in  the  Assyrian  style,  contrast  with  the  pre- 
ceding ;  in  these  the  figures,  kings  or  priests,  wear  a 
kind  of  pointed  cap  \*  the  beard  and  hair  arc  arranged 
in  symmetrical  coils,  and  a  long  robe  covers  almost 
the  entire  body.  Finally,  statues  of  a  later  date 
suggest  the  style  of  archaic  Greek  art,  but  all  have  a 
common  basis  or  family  resemblance,  which  con- 
stitutes the  Cypriote  type.  These  successive  changes, 
due  to  changes  in  foreign  influences,  can  be  followed 
in  the  valuable  collection  of  figurines  in  the  Louvre, 
the  fruit  of  the  excavations  of  M.  de  Vogue.  In  these 

*  The  Antiquities  of  Cyprus,  edited  by  Newton  and  Sidney 
Colvin,  1873,  plates  IX.,  xvm.  ;  Perrot  and  Chipiez,  Art  in  Phcenicia 
and  Cyprus. 

C 


18  CKKKK    AKCII.V.OI.OGV. 

can  be  recognised  the  styles  of  Egypt  ami  of  Assyria 
down  to  the  time  when  Cyprus  had  become  one  of 
the  centres  of  Greek  civilisation  in  the  Kast. 

It  is  not  difficult  to  grasp  the  style  of  the  models 
offered  by  Phienicia  to  the  Greeks  for  imitation  ;  in 
general,  we  find  the  Egyptian  form,  \vith  an  Assyrian 
carefulness  as  to  detail  and  execution.  This  combina- 
tion can  be  seen  in  the  important  monuments  dis- 
covered in  Cyprus.  The  collection  known  as  the 
Curium  treasure  comprises  numerous  objects  in  which 
the  Egyptian  and  Assyrian  styles  appear  at  the  same 
time  ;  to  the  former  belong  the  scarabs  and  gilded 
cups  ;  to  the  latter  the  clasps  decorated  with 
chima;ras  and  flowers,  as  well  as  the  cups  ornamented 
with  subjects  familiar  to  the  artists  of  the  kingdom 
of  Assur.  Beautiful  silver-gilt  cups  of  Phoenician 
workmanship,  found  at  Larnaca,  present  the  same 
characteristics  ;  the  attitude  and  the  costumes  of  the 
figures  represented  on  the  frie/.es,  and  the  details 
of  ornamentation,  show  such  a  confusion  of  styles, 
that  we  may  recognise  at  one  and  the  same  time  the 
iircens  of  the  Egyptian  kings  and  motives  employed 
in  the  decoration  of  the  palaces  of  Nineveh.* 

The  influence  of  Phcenicia  upon  the  industrial  art 
of  Greece  is  incontestable  ;  in  the  domain  of  sculpture, 
however,  this  influence  is  less  distinct.  Phoenicia  did 
not  possess  a  style  sufficiently  original  and  character- 
istic to  impress  itself  upon  the  earliest  Greek  sculptors. 
The  researches  of  Hcu/cy  have  shown  that  Phoenicia, 

*  De  Longpericr,  Music  Napoleon  111.,  plates  x.  and  xi. 


THE   ORIGIN    OF   GREEK    ART.  19 

on  the  contrary,  early  subjected  her  art  to  the  influence 
of  the  archaic  art  of  the  Greeks,  as  it  was  developed 
in  the  sixth  century  i:.C.  in  the  Greek  cities  of  Asia 
Minor  and  the  islands.* 

§  2.    EGYPTIAN    INFLUENCES. 

The  direct  influence  of  Egypt  upon  the  art  of 
Greece  has  been  greatly  exaggerated.  It  is  certain 
that  for  a  long  time  Egypt  was  closed  to  the  Greeks, 
and  known  to  them  only  through  the  medium  of  the 
Phoenicians.  It  was  not  opened  to  them  until  the 
twenty-sixth  dynasty  (Saitic),  in  the  reign  of  Psam- 
metichus  I.  (seventh  century  B.C.),  and  at  that  time 
the  Greeks  were  already  in  possession  of  the  technical 
processes  of  art.  The  historians  tell  us  of  the 
astonishment  with  which  Egyptian  civilisation  struck 
the  Greeks.  The  influence  of  Egypt,  however,  was 
somewhat  felt  at  the  beginnings  of  Greek  art. 
Pausanias,  speaking  of  the  ancient  ^oava,  the 
primitive  images  of  Greek  divinities,  declares  that 
many  of  them  were  Egyptian.  According  to  him  the 
wooden  statues  of  Heracles,  of  Hermes,  and  of 
Theseus,  in  the  gymnasium  at  Messene,  clearly  show 
Egyptian  origin,  and  the  same  style  may  be  exactly 
(a/c/3t/3w?)  recognised  in  the  Heracles  of  Erythrae, 
brought  from  Tyre  by  the  Phoenicians,  f 

Pausanias  divides  the  %6ava  into  two  classes — those 
wrought  in  the  Egyptian  style,  or  brought  from 
Egypt,  and  those  of  the  Daedalidse,  the  pupils  of 

*  Heuzey,  Catalogue  da  Figurines  antiques  du  Louvre,  1882. 
t  Pausanias,  vn.  5. 
C  2 


20  CRKKK    ARCII.KOLOr.V. 

Daxlalus  ;  in  other  words,  in  the  view  of  the  (ireeks, 
their  most  ancient  religious  statues  follow  the 
Egyptian  tradition,  and  in  l);ixlalus  are  to  he  seen 
the  first  attempts  of  Greek  art  to  emancipate  itself 
from  tin's  tradition. 

\Ve  have  noted  the  part  played  by  Phu-nicia  in 
this  matter  of  the  Egyptian  origin  of  Greek  art. 
Through  her  commerce  she  imported  into  Greece 
objects  that  served  for  models ;  by  the  Egyptian 
character  of  her  art,  she  gave  to  the  early  examples  of 
Greek  art  a  reflection,  as  it  were,  of  the  arts  of  Kgypt. 
\Vhcn  Psammctichus,  by  subduing  the  Ionian  and 
Carian  pirates  in  the  seventh  century  M.C.,  opened  his 
kingdom  to  the  Greeks,  Hellenic  genius  had  begun  to 
emerge  from  its  long  infancy  ;  it  was  then  read}-  to 
receive  from  Kgypt  that  which  it  actually  seems  to 
have  borrowed — a  profounder  and  more  religious 
feeling  in  art.  In  architecture  the  budding  Doric  was 
inspired  afresh  by  the  massive  forms  of  the  Egyptian 
column  ;  in  sculpture,  the  Greek  artists,  following  the 
Egyptian,  applied  to  the  human  figure  the  principle 
of  a  more  exact  canon.  This  Egyptian  influence 
may  be  detected  in  many  archaic  Greek  sculptures. 
A  statue  of  Artemis,  found  at  Delos,  and  made  by  a 
Naxian*  in  the  seventh  century  ]:.('.,  is  a  reproduc- 
tion of  those  Egyptian  statues  of  wood  (%oava 
AlyuTTTia),  of  which  Pausanias  spoke  ;  the  arms  hang 
close  to  the  body,  and  the  legs  seem  encased  in  a  sort 
of  sheath.  Imitation  of  Egyptian  art  is  no  less 

*  Bulletin  de  Correspondence  helUniQue,   Vol.   III.,  plate  i.     This 
statue  was  discovered  at  Delos  by   M.  Homolle. 


THE   ORIGIN    OF   GREEK   ART.  21 

visible  in  a  statue  of  a  lioness  of  calcareous  stone 
(Fig.  5),  of  a  date  subsequent  to  that  of  the  Dclian 
Artemis  described  above. 

£    3.    ASSYRIAN    INFLUENCES. 

The  part  played  by  Assyria  in  the  history  of  the 
Oriental  sources  of  Greek  art  is  of  the  utmost  import- 
ance. This  influence  was  shown,  above  all,  in  Asiatic 


FlG.    5.— STATUE    OF   A    LIONESS. 

(Found  at  Corfu.) 


Greece,  in  Ionia,  where  art  was  first  developed,  and  in 
some  parts  of  Greece  proper — at  Corinth  for  example, 
a  commercial  city,  the  business  relations  of  which 
placed  it  in  direct  connection  with  Asia  Minor.  The 
discoveries  made  at  Nineveh  by  Botta,  and  the 
excavations  of  Layard  at  Koyunjik  and  at  Nimriid, 
are  of  the  highest  importance  as  throwing  light  on 
the  history  of  Greek  art.  The  comparison  of 
Assyrian  monuments  with  the  most  ancient 
Hellenic  works  has  shown  clearly  that  in  Ionia 
Hellenic  art  was  formed  in  the  school  of  Assyria. 


22  CRKKK    ARCH T.OI.OCY. 

This  relationship  may  be  proved  from  ;i  large 
number  of  facts,  which  may  he  grouped  as  follows: — 
(l)  motives  in  ornamentation  ;  (2)  types  of  the  human 
figure  and  of  animals;  and  (3)  technique,  both  orna- 
mental and  plastic. 

(1)  Certain    motives,   or    subjects    of    decoration, 
have   passed   directly   from    the    stc/a"   and   enamelled 
bricks  of  Assyria  to  the  painted   vases  and    marbles 
of  Greece.     Such  are  the  palm-leaf  ornament  and  the 
rosette  which  appear  upon   Greek  vases  of  the  most 
ancient     style.       The     lotus     flower,     in     full     bloom 
between  two  buds,  is  Assyrian,  and  is  often   met  with 
in  Greece  in  ceramic  paintings  of  the  Corinthian  style. 

(2)  This    imitation  is   no  less  visible   in    subjects 
comprising  types  of  animals  or  of  the  human   figure. 
It    is    the    East  which  has   created  all   that  fantastic 
world    of  sphinxes,   of  winged   figures,  of  impossible 
animals  with  human  heads,  those  belts  of  tigers,  rams, 
and  moufflons,  which  march  in  long  files  on  bas-reliefs, 
or    on    the    surface  of   the    metal    cups    of    Nineveh, 
and    also     find     a    place     on     archaic    Greek     vases. 
The     rcscmbl  nice     between     the     Assyrian     griffins 
found     at      Nimrud,    and     those     that     decorate     the 
vases    of    Rhodes,  is    equally   striking.      These   mon- 
strous   and    fantastic    figures   of   the   Assyrians   were 
frequent      in     earl}'     Greek      art,      but      no      longer 
appear    on    later    monuments.         The  earliest    Greek 
artists  did    not    limit    themselves     to     the    imitation 
of  Assyrian  subjects  ;  they  also  copied   the  Assyrian 
system     of     decoration.       Their     vases    were    orna- 
mented, as  were  the  metal   cups    of   Cyprus  and    of 


THE   ORIGIN    OF   GREEK   ART.  23 

Nineveh,  with  successive  zones,  which  resembled  so 
many  superimposed  friezes.  The  bronze  crater,  which 
the  Dorians  of  Sparta  had  ordered  for  Croesus,  was 
ornamented  in  the  same  way.  "  It  was,"  says  Herod- 
otus, "decorated  up  to  the  brim  with  the  figures  of 
plants  and  of  animals."'" 

Besides  the  vases  and  articles  in  metal,  carpets 
and  other  rich  stuffs  of  Assyria  furnished  the  Greek 
with  these  types  of  ornamentation.  Thus  it  was  that 
the  peplos  of  Alcimenes  of  Sybaris  had  its  border 
decorated,  as  Aristotle  tells  us,  with  Oriental  sub- 
jects. "  The  upper  portion  represented  the  sacred 
animals  of  the  Susii,  and  the  lower  those  of  the 
Persians. "f 

(3)  Assyrian  influence  betrayed  itself  likewise  in  the 
earlier  examples  of  Greek  sculpture.  Even  though,  from 
the  beginning,  the  Greeks  showed  themselves  much 
more  original  in  the  plastic  than  in  the  industrial  arts, 
such  as  pottery,  there  was  here  also  a  distinct  debt  to 
the  East.  The  carefulness  of  detail,  the  attention 
with  which  the  accessories  of  beard,  hair,  and  costume 
are  treated,  a  certain  tendency  to  accent  the  an  atom}' 
in  the  nude,  causing  the  muscles  to  stand  out,  heavy 
and  thickset  figures — are  features  common  alike  to 
the  plastic  art  of  Assyria  and  to  that  of  these  earlier 
Greeks.  It  should  be  admitted,  however,  that  in  this 
field  of  art,  imitation  is  more  difficult,  and  that  direct 
study  of  the  nude  enabled  the  Greeks  to  develop  their 
individual  peculiarities  with  much  greater  rapidity. 

*  Herodotus,  I.  70. 

t  Aristotle,  Mir.  Ausc.,  96. 


24  GKF.KK    AKCII.I.OLOCY. 

§     4.      I,  V  DO- 1'  H  R  V  C  I  A  N        A  R  T. 

The  dominion  of  Assyria  in  Cyprus  and  in 
Phoenicia  at  the  time  of  the  Salmons  is  not  sufficient 
to  explain  the  influences  of  which  we  have  just 
spoken.  The  transmission  to  (ireece  of  Assyrian 
forms  and  technique  was  effected  chiefl\'  through 
Asia  Minor  ;  we  are  able  to  stud}-  chiefly  the  art  serving 
as  intermediary  through  the  researches  of  (i.  IVrrot. 
In  Ptcria  and  in  Phrygia,  at  Huyuk,  at  Bogha/.-Kieui, 
at  Kalaba,  this  Lydo- Phrygian  art  can  best  be 
studied.  It  seems  to  have  been  common  to  Lydia, 
Cappadocia,  and  Phrygia,  and  is  directl}'  connected 
with  Assyria.  In  the  figures  of  animals — lions  and 
bulls — may  be  recognised  an  exact  imitation  of 
the  Assyrian  types  which  commerce  had  scattered 
over  Asia  Minor.  On  seeing  the  bas-relief  of 
Pteria,  where  figures  in  hieratic  attitudes  clothed 
in  Oriental  costumes  advance  in  long  files,  it  is 
difficult  not  to  be  reminded  of  the  sculptures  of 
Nineveh.  Doubt  as  to  the  role  played  by  Asia 
Minor  in  the  beginnings  of  Greek  art  is  no  longer 
admissible.*  Recent  discoveries  have  only  confirmed 

*  ["  Ilirrn  r,  "  ART.— Among  the  many  monuments  of  inland 
Asia  Minor,  here  called  Lydo-Phrygian,  i.-  an  important  .-cries  exhibit- 
ing a  peculiar  art,  in  which  the  original-  of  several  types  in  Phrygian 
art,  strictly  so  called,  may  be  detected.  These  monuments,  which  are 
found  principally  in  Pteria  (Cappadocia),  but  also  in  Phrygia,  and  at 
Karabel  (the  "Sesostris"'  of  Herodotus),  and  Mt.  Sipylu.-  (the  so- 
called  ''Niche"),  in  Lydia,  commonly  represent  figures  in  relief,  in 
stiff  hieratic  attitudes,  wearing  shoes  with  ends  turned  up,  and  either  a 
pointed  or  a  cylindrical  shaped  cap  (polus)  ;  inscriptions,  which  have 
not  yet  been  deciphered,  of  a  peculiar  character,  written  boustrophedon, 


THE   ORIGIN    OF   GREEK   ART.  25 

the  theory  of  Gerhard,  who,  speaking  of  subjects 
borrowed  by  primitive  Greek  art  from  Assyria, 
remarks  :  "  These  artistic  types  seem  to  have  been 
imported  into  Greece  less  by  the  Phoenicians  than 
by  the  people  of  Asia  Minor,  who  had  control  of 
the  commercial  routes  that  pass  through  Comana 
and  Tarsus  and  finally  terminate  at  Nineveh  and 
Babylon."  * 

frequently  accompanying  the  sculptures.  The  art  represented  by  these 
monuments  was  undoubtedly  the  most  important  medium  through 
which  the  art  of  Mesopotamia,  more  or  less  modified  in  the  process, 
was  transmitted  overland  to  the  Phrygians,  and  through  them  to  the 
people  dwelling  on  the  coasts  of  the  .Egean. 

These  monuments,  both  in  style  and  in  some  of  the  hieroglyphic 
characters  used  in  the  accompanying  inscriptions,  bear  a  striking, 
though  in  some  respects  an  illusory,  resemblance  to  certain  monuments 
found  in  Northern  Syria,  ascribed  to  the  ancient  Hittites  ("  Kheta  "  of 
the  Karnak  inscription  of  Rameses  II.,  the  Hittites  of  the  A.V.  of 
the  Bible).  On  the  strength  of  these  resemblances,  some  scholars 
would  ascribe  these  monuments  to  the  civilisation  and  art  of  the 
Hittites,  who,  according  to  Sayce,  the  most  prominent  advocate  of  this 
theory,  were  a  non- Aryan  people  with  a  kingdom  extending  about  the 
fourteenth  century  B.C.  as  far  west  as  the  --Egean.  (Sayce,  Trans.  Soc. 
Biblical  Arch.,  Vol.  VII. ;  Herodotos,  1883,  pp.  425^;  Academy,  Aug.  18, 
1883;  W.  Wright,  Empire  of  the  Hiitites,  1884;  Ebers,  Annali  dcW 
Inst.,  1883,  p.  109). 

The  arguments  adduced  in  favour  of  this  theory,  and  in  fact  of  the 
Hittite  conquest  of  central  and  western  Asia  Minor,  cannot  be  regarded 
as  conclusive,  and  the  Hittite  origin  of  these  monuments  is  accepted  by 
but  few  archaeologists.  For  this  early,  and  as  yet  enigmatical,  phase 
of  art  in  Asia  Minor,  the  designation  "Anatolian"  has  been  proposed. 
Cf.  Ramsay,  Athenczmn,  Dec.  27,  1884 ;  Journal  of  Hellenic  Studies, 
Vols.  \\\.ff. ;  G.  Hirschfeld,  Paphlagonische  Felsengr'dber(Abh.  Berliner 
Akad.},  1885.  Other  literature  on  the  Hittites  in  Reinach,  Manuel  dt 
Philologie  dassique,  Vol.  II.,  p.  77 — 78.  Compare  Perrot  et  Chipiez, 
Histoire  de  FArt  dans  T Antiquite,  Vol.  III.  (Phenice,  Chypre,  Asie 
Mineure),  1884.] 

*   Ueber  die  Kunst  der  Photricier. 


26  GRKKK    AKCII.KOLOr.Y. 

Sucli  arc  the  data  \vhich  modern  archaeological 
science  has  substituted  for  the  fables  wherein  the 
Greeks  obscured  the  sources  and  beginnings  of  their 
art.  The  Lydian  Cyclopes,  the  Dactyl!  of  Mount 
Ida,  the  first  skilled  workers  in  iron  and  other  metals, 
and  the  Tclchincs  coming  from  Crete  to  Cyprus  and 
Rhodes,  all  symbolise  a  fabulous  art.  But  even 
beneath  these  legends  \vc  may  discern  what  the 
Greek  dimly  recognised  as  to  the  forms  and  processes 
of  art  transmitted  from  the  East  to  Greece.  Greek 
art  has  thus  followed  a  natural  law  :  the  latest  comer, 
though  with  some  original  traits  which  arc  apparent 
in  its  first  attempts,  it  has  borrowed  from  anterior 
civilisations  all  that  could  be  learned,  and  finally, 
after  a  vigorous  effort,  has  brought  into  independent 
existence  its  own  original  qualities. 


CHAPTER    III. 

THE   GR.IICO-ORIENTAL   PERIOD. 


HKUNN:  Die  Kunst  bci  Homer.  1868. 


HELBIG  :   Das  hoinerische  Epos  aits  den  Denkiadlern  erliiittert.  i 


CONZE  :  Alelische  T/iongcfiisse,  i862_/. 


DUMONT  ET  CHAPLAIN  :  LesCtramiques  de  laGrece  propre,  He  fascic.,   1883 


SALZMANN  :  Necropole  ae  Cultures,  1867 — 73. 


§   I.    ART    IN    THE    HOMERIC    AGE. 

WE  do  not  venture  to  fix  accurately  the  date  when  the 
influences  of  the  East  upon  Greek  art  began  to  be  felt. 
In  matters  of  this  sort  too  positive  affirmations  are  a 
source  of  error.  At  the  same  time  it  is  safe  to  say 
that,  from  the  end  of  the  seventh  century  B.C.,  the 
Greeks  were  in  full  possession  of  technical  pro- 
cesses, and  that  at  about  that  date  the  history  of 
Greek  art  really  begins.  The  period  immediately 
preceding  this  time,  which  we  have  named  the  Gntco- 
Oriental  period,  is  marked  by  the  efforts  of  Greek- 
genius  to  emancipate  itself  and  to  overcome  the  in- 
fluences to  which  it  had  necessarily  been  subject. 

Monuments  of  this  period  are  rare.  Our  know- 
ledge of  Greek  civilisation,  from  the  Trojan  War  and 
the  Dorian  invasion  down  to  historic  times,  is  largely 
to  be  gathered  from  the  texts  of  the  Greek  authors. 


28  C.RKKK    AKCII.I-OI.CXIV. 

These  texts  themselves  sho\v  how  much  Greece  owed 
to  the  Kast.  The  Homeric  poems,  the  date  of  which 
must  be  placed  nearer  the  ninth  century  ];.('.  than 
the  Trojan  War,  describe  the  civilisation  of  those 
times.  They  ascribe  to  the  personages  of  the  heroic 
age  contemporaneous  manners  and  customs:  Homeric 
civilisation  is  half  Oriental.  The  buildings  described 
in  the  Odyssey  show  an  architecture  of  an  Assyrian 
rather  than  of  a  Greek  type.  The  palace  of  Alcinoiis 
is  an  Oriental  palace  ;  brilliant  colours,  precious 
metals,  are  there  scattered  in  rich  profusion,  and  give 
it  "  a  splendour  like  that  of  the  sun  or  of  the  moon." 
The  walls  of  bronze  may  be  explained  by  the  plaques 
of  beaten  bronze  which  adorned  the  palaces  of 
Assyria  ;  walls  brilliant  with  a  dark  blue  colour  (jrepl 
Be  Opiy/cos  Kudvoio}*  call  to  mind  the  enamelled  bricks 
of  Nineveh.  In  the  dogs  of  gold  and  silver,  fashioned 
by  Hephaestus,  which  guarded  the  portals,  we  may 
recognise  the  counterpart  of  those  fabulous  animals, 
winged  bulls  with  human  faces,  that  stood  at  the  gates 
of  the  palace  of  Khorsabad.  The  works  of  art  de- 
scribed by  Homer  show  that  the  most  advanced  art 
was  that  of  working  in  metals,  but  the  poems  show 
no  knowledge  of  the  use  of  solder,  subsequently  in- 
vented by  a  Greek  of  Chios.  The  complicated  shield 
of  Achilles  was  covered  with  small  figures  of  gold  and 
of  silver,  hammered  (crtyvpi'jXaTa)  and  put  together 
mechanically  :  the  figures  were  without  doubt  ar- 
ranged in  zones  or  belts.  This  was  art  in  the  style  of 

*   Horn.  OJyss.  vii.  87. 


THE   ORIGIN    OF   GREEK   ART.  29 

the  Ionian  Greeks  of  the  tenth  century  B.C.,  pupils  of 
the  Assyrians  and  Phoenicians.  Homer  speaks,  to  be 
sure,  of  vases  of  great  value,*  but  these  craters  were, 
in  the  words  of  the  poet,  the  work  of  Sidonians. 

§  2.  ART  IN  THE  SEVENTH  CENTURY  I!.C. 

In  the  seventh  century  B.C.,  a  time  at  last  historic, 
the  texts  show  us  that  the  mixture  of  Asiatic  and 
Hellenic  influences  is  still  characteristic  of  the  period. 
Pausanias  has  left  a  description  of  an  important 
monument  of  the  seventh  century  B.C.,  the  chest  of 
Cypselus,  dedicated  at  Olympia  by  the  Cypselidae  in 
memory  of  Cypselus,  tyrant  of  Corinth,  whom  his 
mother  had  concealed  in  a  chest  in  order  to  save  his 
lifc.f  Current  opinion  placed  this  monument  at  about 
the  thirtieth  Olympiad.^: 

It  was  decorated  in  horizontal  belts,  some  of  the 
figures  being  carved  in  the  cedar,  while  others,  of  gold 
or  of  ivory,  were  inlaid.  The  subjects  represented 
were  taken  in  great  part  from  the  Hellenic  myths, 
but  the  influence  of  the  East  is  still  deeply  felt  in  their 
treatment.  This  influence  betrays  itself  by  the  striving 
after  a  crude  symbolism  and  by  the  frightful  character 
of  some  of  the  figures,  such  as  that,  for  instance,  of 
Destiny  (Krjp),  represented  with  the  features  of  a 
woman,  but  with  hooked  nails  and  enormous  teeth. 

*  Horn.  //.,  xxiii.  740,  Oifyss.  iv.  616. 

t  Pausanias,  V.  17 — 19. 

J  It  may  have  been  made  much  earlier.  Pausanias  says  only  that 
the  inscriptions  accompanying  the  subjects  were  taken  from  the  poet 
Eumelus,  who  flourished  towards  the  close  of  the  ninth  Olympiad 
(741  B.C.). 


GRKKK    ARCILF.OLOCY. 


Certain  subjects  purely  Oriental  were  not  understood 
by  1'ausanias,  such  as  the  Persian  Artemis.  This  (Jreck 
traveller  asks  why  she  is  represented  "with  wings  on 
her  shoulders,  holding  a  panther  in  one  hand  and  a 


IMC.    6.  —  I'KRSIAN    ARTEMIS. 

(From  a  Greek  vase.) 


lion  in  the  other,"  a  design  often  reproduced  on 
Oriental  gems  and  on  the  Phcenico-Grcck  ornaments 
from  Camcirus  in  Rhodes. 

An  idea  as  to  the  style  of  the  figures  ma}-  be  ob- 
tained from  the  vase  paintings  of  the  eighth  and 
seventh  centuries  B.C.  \Ye  have  already  spoken  of  the 
vases  of  Rhodes  and  of  Corinth  ;  those  of  Melos  are 


THE   ORIGIN   OF   GREEK   ART.  31 

no  less  interesting.  The  ornaments  are  still  Oriental  ; 
belts  of  Asiatic  animals  are  still  found,  but  the  figures 
they  mark  off  and  include  are  now  Hellenic  gods  in  a 
Greek  form.  On  a  vase  from  Melos  may  be  seen 
Apollo  and  Artemis  treated  as  the  figures  on  the  chest 
of  Cypselus  must  have  been. 

Soon  after  the  second  half  of  the  seventh  century 
B.C.,  schools  of  art  were  instituted  in  Oriental  Greece, 
and  the  art  of  working  in  metal  underwent  a  remark- 
able development.  Eastern  art  is  no  longer  slavishly 
copied.  Greek  art,  as  it  were,  realises  itself,  and 
becomes  something  individual.  About  the  fortieth 
Olympiad  (or  about  the  twentieth,  according  to  the 
chronicle  of  Eusebius)  Glaucus  of  Chios  invented  the 
art  of  soldering  metals  ;  thus  was  substituted  a  new 
process  for  the  old  one  of  putting  pieces  together 
mechanically.  This  old  method  was  employed  before 
the  thirty-eighth  Olympiad,  when  a  colossal  figure,  de- 
signed for  Olympia,  made  of  sheets  of  hammered  gold, 
riveted  with  nails,  was  executed  for  the  Cypselidae. 
At  Chios  likewise,  the  sculptors  Melas,  Micciadcs,  and 
Archermus,  in  the  seventh  century  B.C.,  were  the 
founders  of  a  school  which  developed  brilliantly  in 
the  sixth  century  B.C.  At  Samos  the  art  of  working 
in  bronze  made  rapid  progress  under  the  impulse 
given  it  by  Rhoecus  and  his  sons  Theodorus  and 
Telecles.  These  workers  in  metal  (ropevrai)  were 
also  architects.  They  began  the  great  temple  of 
Hera  (Heraeum),  the  construction  of  which  demanded 

*  Conze,  Ale!.  Thotigefiisse,  plate  iv. 


32  CRKKK    AKCII.KOI.OCY. 

a  large  variety  in  workmanship,  and  displayed  the 
many-sided  talents  of  these  old  masters.  In  the 
seventh  century  !'..('.,  this  Samian  school  of  bron/c- 
casters  produced  some  important  works,  such  as  the 
bron/.e  crater  dedicated  in  the  Ileneum  by  the 
Samians  on  their  return  from  Tartcssus  (in  the 
thirty-seventh  Olympiad).  This  crater  was  orna- 
mented with  griffins'  heads  in  round  bosses,  three 
kneeling  figures  serving  as  a  pedestal.  The  artists 
of  Samos  acquired  such  skill  that  their  works  were  in 
demand  in  the  East  less  than  a  century  later.  This 
Samian  school  also  executed  for  Cnesus  a  crater  of 
gold,  which  many  years  afterwards  was  in  use  in  the 
palaces  of  the  Persian  kings  (Olymp.  l,\. — I.YIII.). 

This  rapid  progress  in  art  took  place  during  tins 
period  almost  entirely  among  the  Oriental  Greeks. 
While  in  the  seventh  century  r,.c.  man}-  temples  were 
built  in  these  regions  (at  Samos,  Sardis,  and  Kphcsus), 
the  Dorian  districts  of  European  Greece  could  count  up 
but  a  small  number.  Before  long,  however,  the  de- 
velopment of  art  proceeded  equally  among  the 
western  Greeks  as  among  the  eastern  Greeks.  About 
the  fortieth  Olympiad  the  Dorian  schools  blossomed 
into  life  under  the  influence  of  the  Cretan  sculptors 
Dipcenus  and  Scyllis,  and  of  the  Magncsian  Bathyclcs. 
The  orders  of  architecture  were  formed  ;  to  the 
ancient  rudely  shaped  wooden  images  succeeded 
statues  of  gods  and  heroes  that  bore  clear  testimony 
to  a  direct  study  of  nature  ;  sculptors  ceased  to  be 
called  "  stone-cutters,"  as  the  first  artists  working  in 
marble  were  termed.  A  hundred  years,  however,  still 


THE   ORIGIN   OF   GREEK   ART.  33 

separated  Greek  art  from  the  wonderful  fifth  century 
U.C.,  that  epoch  of  its  perfection. 

While  the  traces  of  Oriental  influence  grow  fainter, 
and  in  time  become  actually  effaced,  the  contrary 
tendencies  of  Doric  and  Ionic  genius  become  more 
and  more  marked.  In  spite,  however,  of  these  dif- 
ferences, there  is  still  in  all  this  early  art  a  character 
common  to  the  whole  Hellenic  race  ;  a  fine  instinct 
for  the  beautiful,  a  supreme  faith  in  its  own  genius,  a 
disdain  for  every  thine:  un-Hellenic. 


|5  oak 

ARCHITECTURE. 


CHAPTER    I. 

GR.ECO-PELASGIC    MONUMENTS. 

MIDDLETON  :    Grecian  Remains  in  Italy,  a  Description  of  Cyclopian  H'alls,  etc. 

1812. 

PETIT  RADEL  :  Recherches  siir  ?es  Monuments  cyclopcens,  etc.,  1841. 
DODWELL  :   Views  and  Descriptions  of  Cyclopean  or  Pelasgic  Remains,  1834. 

WE  shall  give  only  slight  attention  to  monuments 
anterior  to  the  appearance  of  the  Orders  in  archi- 
tecture. Art  can  have  but  little  to  do  with  the 
erection  of  those  massive  structures  raised  by  the 
Pelasgians  in  Asia  Minor  and  Italy,  as  well  as  in 
Greece.  The  Greeks,  struck  with  astonishment  at 
them,  believed  them  to  be  of  mythological  origin; 
they  ascribed  them  to  fabulous  beings,  the  Cyclopes 
or  the  Gasterocheires  of  Lycia.  The  ruins,  known 
indiscriminately  at  the  present  day  as  Pelasgic  or 
Cyclopean,  belong  to  diverse  epochs,  and  are  to  be 
classified  in  accordance  with  the  differences  shown  in 
the  structure  of  their  walls. 

The  most  ancient  are  commonly  termed  Cyclopean 

walls.      These    ramparts    are    formed    of    enormous 

blocks,    put    together    without  cement,    with    smaller 

stones  filling  up  the  interstices.     The  most   striking 

D  2 


36  C.REF.K    AKCII  F.OLOC.Y. 

examples  of  this  method  of  construction  are  found 
in  A rijolis,  in  the  corridor-like  galleries  of  Tiryns. 
These  galleries,  built  between  thick  Cyclopean  walls, 
end  in  narrow  triangular  doors,  and  were  planned 
with  a  view  to  defence. 

The  constructions  called  Pclasgic  are  composed  of 
huge  blocks,  executed  with  greater  regularity  ;  these 
blocks  are  polygonal  in  shape,  well  fitted  together, 
and  finished  with  smooth  outer  surfaces.  This  type 
is  met  with  in  several  parts  of  Italy  and  Greece  ;  a 
portion  of  the  walls  of  Mycenrc  exhibits  it. 

The  Pclasgic  construction  includes  a  second  variety, 
which  has  sometimes  been  termed  the  third  polygonal 
system.  In  this  the  blocks  begin  to  assume  a  quad- 
rangular form,  but  the  layers  are  not  horizontal,  and 
the  lines  of  juncture  cross  in  every  direction.  This 
construction  was  employed  at  Myccnaj  in  that  portion 
of  the  walls  of  the  Acropolis  adjoining  the  Gate  of 
Lions.  There  is  reason  to  believe  that  these  walls  arc 
of  a  more  recent  period  than  the  Cyclopean  masonry, 
and  that  they  belong  to  the  Achaean  age.  At  any 
rate,  we  cannot  give  them  a  precise  date.  Euripides  is 
only  echoing  popular  tradition  when  he  ascribes  them 
to  the  Cyclopes,  who  built  them  "  with  lever,  rule,  and 
hammer."* 

These  massive  walls  clearly  enough  declare  that 
the  chief  concern  in  their  construction  by  the  ancient 
inhabitants  of  Greece  was  the  provision  for  defence 
in  case  of  attack.  Cities  were  merely  places  of 

*  Euripides,  Here.  fur.  943/1 


ARCHITECTURE. 


37 


refuge,  built  upon  high  hills.     In  time  of  alarm  every- 
thing that    could    be    saved    was    hurried   within   the 


precincts    of  the  Acropolis,  and  each   man  defended 
himself  as  best  he  could. 

Graeco-Pelasgic  architecture,  however,  is  susceptible 
of  a  more  careful  finish  than  the  rude  construction 
of  these  walls  might  indicate.  Monuments  of  the 


38  CKKFK    AKCH.KOLOnV. 

Achaean  period,  anterior  to  the  Dorian  invasions, 
testify  to  a  certain  decree  of  art,  and  reveal  that 
mixture  of  individual  and  Oriental  styles  which 
has  already  been  remarked.  The  most  beautiful 
specimen  of  this  architectural  decoration  has  long 
been  known  ;  it  is  the  sculpture  which  decorates  the 
tympanum  of  the  Gate  of  Lions  at  Myccna,-.  A  bas- 
relief  represents  two  lions  facing  each  other,  on 
opposite  sides  of  a  column  with  a  circular  capital,  and 
with  a  base — a  design  essentially  Asiatic  in  origin. 
The  heads  of  the  lions,  undoubtedl}'  of  bronze,  have 
disappeared.  Architectural  fragments  discovered  at 
Myccna:  by  Dr.  Schliemann  show  a  keen  sense 
for  decoration  in  art  :  here  are  fragments  of  fluted 
columns,  of  friezes,  and  of  shafts  of  porphyry  orna- 
mented with  spirals  and  palm  leaves. 

The  most  remarkable  remains  of  this  period  arc 
the  so-called  Treasuries  of  Orchomcnus  and  of  My- 
cenae, which  were  probably  of  the  nature  of  tombs. 
Before  Dr.  Schliemann's  excavations,  the  Treasury  of 
Atreus  alone  was  known  at  Mycenaj  ;  but  recent  ex- 
amination has  brought  a  second  to  light.  These 
structures  arc  built  of  slabs  placed  horizontally,  the 
layers  of  which  gradually  approach  each  other  and 
form  a  sort  of  pointed  arch  with  a  keystone.  The 
door,  with  splaying  jambs,  has  a  pyramidal  form,  and 
is  surmounted  by  a  triangular  tympanum.  The  interior 
wall,  faced  with  bronze  plates, in  the  Oriental  style,  was, 
without  doubt,  ornamented  with  columns  ;  near  the 
Treasury  of  Atreus  has  been  found  a  column  with  cir- 
cular base,  and  ornamented  with  chevrons  and  spirals. 


ARCHITECTURE.  39 

Such  were  the  obscure  beginnings  of  an  art  which 
was  destined  to  a  brilliant  development  after  the 
period  of  warfare  had  passed,  and  after  the  Hellenic 
people,  firmly  established  in  their  own  territory,  were 
no  longer  obliged  to  provide  solely  for  defence  in 
their  principal  public  works. 


CHAPTER    II. 

TIN-:     ORDKRS     OF     CKKKK     AK<  'I  I ITIXTUKK  —  T1IKIU 
OKKilN    AM)    I'KIN*  II'LKS. 

Kri.i.i-u  :  GcsJtichtc  dcr  Baitkiinst,  1854  —  187:. 
l.t  I;KK  :  Gc^hichtf  tier  .  I rchitcktur  ( 1855),  1875. 
J.  FKKI;I-SSJN  :  The  Illustrated  Handbook  of  Architecture,  1855,  Second  Kuitiun, 

1859.      History  of  Architecture,  Second  Kdition,  1874. 
Ki;x.  WAI.NEK  and  ().  KAUIEI.  ;    Die  Grumlformcn  dtr  atttiHen  classischen  linn- 

kiiHst,  1869. 

}•'..  VINET  :  Esqitissc  d'une  Ifistoire  de  I' Architecture  classiyite,  1875. 
CH.  BI.ANC  :  Gtammaire  des  Artsdu  Dessin,  Third  Edition,  1876. 
Cmriicz  :  Ifistoire  critique  des  Origines  et  de  la  Formation  des  Ordrcs  frees,  1876 
I'.ErLK  :   Histoire  de  [ 'Art grec  avant  Pericles,  1868. 
HALSER  :  Styllehre   der  architect.  Forinen  des  Altertluinis,  1882. 
li'iTTiCHER  :  Die  Tektonik  der  Hellenen,  Second  Edition,  1873—1801. 
PEAKSE:  Principles  of  Athenian  Architecture,  1851.    (New  Kdition  in  preparation. 


<$   I.     ORIGIN    OF    THK    ORDERS. 

SOON  after  the  Dorian  invasion  of  Peloponnesus, 
Greek  genius  began  to  create  those  forms  in  architec- 
ture that  arc  peculiar  to  it,  and  that  bear  its  distinct 
imprint.  It  \vas  by  this  step,  by  the  creation  and 
use  of  the  orders,  that  it  discovered,  as  it  were,  and 
asserted  its  individuality  :  at  the  same  time  the  prin- 
ciple of  proportions,  necessarily  involved,  gave  to 
Greek  architecture  a  beauty  altogether  unique  and 
original. 

The  orders  of  architecture   were   finally  developed 
at  the   close  of  the  seventh   century   ];.c\,  and  during 


ARCHITECTURE.  41 

the  sixth  century  B.C.  This  \vas  only  after  a  long 
period  of  experimentation,  during  which  the  several 
elements  of  Hellenic  architecture,  borrowed  from  the 
East,  were  applied  somewhat  at  random,  although  at 
last  made  subject  to  fixed  laws.  Before  this  epoch 
ancient  Hellenic  edifices,  erected  either  according  to 
traditions  from  abroad,  or  under  purely  local  in- 
fluences, may  be  classed  in  five  distinct  groups, 
the  characteristic  types  of  which  were  simultaneously 
followed  throughout  this  early  period.  M.  Chipiez  has 
defined  these  groups  as  follows  : — 

(1)  Temples  made  of  metal,  or  faced  with  metal — 
in    Media,    in    Judaea,    and    in    Asia    Minor.       Greek 
authors,  especially   Pausanias,  speak  of  edifices  con- 
structed of  bronze,  such  as   the  legendary  temple  of 
Apollo    at    Delphi,    that    of  Athena    Chalcioecus    at 
Sparta,  and  the  treasury  of  Myron,  tyrant  of  Sicyon. 
In  the  sEneidvi  Virgil  the  temple  erected  at  Carthage 
by  the  Phoenician  Dido  is  described  as  being  of  bronze. 

(2)  The    temple    of  wood,  hardly   more    than  an 
enlargement  of  the  cabins  built  of  logs  and  clay  in 
which    the    ancient   Hellenes   dwelt.      In   later  times 
popular    piety    preserved    these   buildings    with   care. 
Such  were  the  temple  of  wood  at  Metapontum,  and 
the  sekos  of  Poseidon  Hippios,  near  Mantineia,  which 
tradition   ascribed   to  the   legendary  architects   Aga- 
medes  and  Trophonius.      Hadrian  caused  the  latter 
building  to  be  enclosed  within  a  marble  temple.     It 
is  probable  that  the  use  of  wood  was  determined  by 
the  poverty  of  the  primitive  cities. 

(3)  Temples  in  which  both  wood  and  metal  were 


42  C-KF.KK    AKCII.r.Ol.OGY. 

used,  wood  in  the  upper  part  of  the  edifices.  Instances 
of  this  type  are  the  temples  of  Zeus  at  Nemca,  and  of 
Zeus  Larissnjus  at  Corinth.  The  wood  became  rotten 
in  the  course  of  time,  and  the  roof  was  thus  destroyed. 
Pausanias  mentions  several  sanctuaries  thus  deprived 
of  covering. 

(4)  Temples  in  the  form  of  a  cave  :  an  instance  is 
the  sanctuary  of  the  Dclian   Apollo  on   Mount  Cyn- 
thus,  in  the  island  of  Dclos.* 

(5)  The  temple  of  stone,  forming  a  quadrangular 
enclosure,   like  that   of  Mount   Ocha  in    Kubeea. 

It  is  doubtful  by  what  process  the  Greek  temple, 
with  its  regular  observance  of  the  orders,  came  to  be 
substituted  for  these  irregularly  constructed  sanc- 
tuaries. Several  explanations  have  been  proposed. 
The  oldest  is  that  of  Vitruvius,  which  prevailed  during 
the  whole  of  the  Renaissance,  and  has  been  accepted 
more  or  less  absolute!}'  by  the  writers  of  our  own 
times.  According  to  this  system,  Greek  architecture 
takes  its  origin  from  constructions  in  wood.  Recent 
writers  who  accept  this  view  (Hittorf,  Beule, 
Charles  Blanc),  while  making  due  allowance  for 
clear  Oriental  influences,  have  endeavoured  to  find 
the  explanation  of  the  several  architectural  members 
of  a  Greek  temple  in  wooden  constructions.  They 
recognise  in  the  entablature,  or  upper  portion  of  the 
temple,  beams,  pegs,  and  ceilings  of  wood  ;  the  column 
is  derived  from  a  wooden  support  squared  and  fluted 
by  the  axe.  Another  system,  advocated  by  Yiollet- 

*  Lcbcgue  :  Recherchts  sur  Dclos,  1876. 


ARCHITECTURE.  43 

Ic-Duc  and  Rcgnault,  sees  the  origin  of  Greek  archi- 
tecture in  the  necessary  conditions  of  stone  con- 
struction, and  would  thus  regard  the  art  as  one  born 
on  the  soil  of  Greece.  Discoveries  made  in  the  East 
invalidate  this  theory,  by  showing  that  the  elements 
of  the  Greek  orders  were  borrowed  from  Oriental 
countries — Assyria,  Phoenicia,  and  Asia  Minor.  M. 
Chipiez  has  endeavoured  to  show  that  the  principles 
of  architecture  in  wood  but  imperfectly  explain 
certain  details  in  the  Greek  temple.  According  to 
him,  the  forms  adopted  in  the  orders  had  been  pre- 
viously applied  in  Oriental  buildings ;  in  the  final 
determination  of  the  orders,  however,  the  Greek 
artists  were  subject  to  the  restrictions  of  plastic  art, 
and  to  the  intuitive  necessity  of  constructing  a 
reasoned  and  harmonious  unity. 

£    2.       THE    DORIC    ORDER. 

The  only  orders  purely  Greek  are  the  Doric, 
Ionic,  and  Corinthian.  The  most  ancient  of  these 
is  the  Doric,  which,  towards  the  close  of  the  seventh 
century  B.C.,  appeared  simultaneously  in  all  the 
Dorian  countries — at  Corinth,  Metapontum,  Paestum, 
Segeste,  Agrigentum,  Syracuse.  It  is  the  national 
order  of  the  Dorian  stock,  which  gave  to  it  its  own 
characteristics  of  severity,  force,  and  power. 

In  its  essential  elements,  and  at  the  time  of  its 
perfect  development,  the  Doric  order  was  composed 
of  the  following  members  : — The  shaft  of  the  column 
rested  directly  on  the  stylobate  or  sub-base.  It  was 


44 


C.REKK    ARCIU-.OLOCY. 


FIG.  8. 
(Column 


—  DORIC   ORDEK. 

with  entablature. )J 


cut  with  twenty  vertical 
Hillings  without  interven- 
ing spaces,  and  assumed 
to  the  eye  the  appearance 
of  two  truncated  cones 
placed  the  one  above 
the  other  at  their  largest 
section.  The  column 
showed  in  this  way  a 
swelling  or  entasis,  which 
gave  it  the  aspect  of 
strength  and  of  elasticity. 
It  was  composed  of  cylin- 
drical drums  attached  to 
each  other,  which  were 
often  fluted  after  being 
placed  in  position.  The 
top  of  the  column  ter- 
minated in  the  gorgerin 
or  neck,  enclosed  be- 
tween rows  of  fillets  (in 
this  place  called  an- 
nulets—  "little  rings"), 
which  appear  to  unite  as 
it  were  into  a  band  the 
resisting  forces  of  the 
shaft  in  order  to  support 
the  capital.  This  is  sur- 
mounted by  a  sort  of 
cushion  or  cc/iinns,  upon 
which  rests  a  flat  rcct- 


ARCHITECTURE. 


45 


angular  block — the  abacus — the  edges  of  which  project 
over  the  echinus. 

This  powerful  column,  with  its  capital,  supported 


FlG.    9. — DETAIL   OF   THE   FRIEZE   AND   CORONA. 

an  entablature  comprising  several  distinct  members. 
First  came  the  architrave,  entirely  uniform,  composed 
of  smooth  blocks,  with  a  free  bearing  from  column  to 


46  (ikF.r.K    ARCII.KOLOGV. 

column.  Above  this  ran  a  flat  moulding,  the  Uenia, 
separating  the  architrave  from  the  frie/.e.  Tlie  frie/.e 
was  made  up  of  alternate  triglyphs  and  metopes. 
The  triglyphs  were  bevelled  flirtings  in  decoration  of 
a  projecting  rectangle  resting  directly  on  the  ta,Miia, 
beneath  which  were  fixed  six  small  marble  cones 
called  £•«//*?,  or  drops. 

The  channels  of  the  triglyphs  arc  in  fact  not  three 
in  number  as  the  name  seems  to  indicate  ;  they  arc- 
made  up  of  two  complete  ones  on  the  face  of  the 
rectangle,  and  a  half  one  at  each  edge.  These  grooves 
have  been  explained  in  various  ways.  Yitruvius, 
true  to  his  principle,  asserts  that  the)-  are  derived 
from  the  wooden  tringles  that  were  placed  for  decora- 
tion at  the  ends  of  the  beams.  The  metope  is  a  slab 
of  marble,  sometimes  smooth,  but  more  commonly 
ornamented  by  sculptures  in  bas-relief,  and  it  com- 
pletely fills  the  space  between  the  triglyphs.  In  early 
times  this  space  was  left  open,  as  we  may  infer  from 
the  statements  of  ancient  authors.  In  the  Orestes  of 
Euripides,  the  hero  relates  that  he  made  his  escape 
from  a  temple  through  the  openings  between  the 
triglyphs.* 

The  entablature  is  crowned  by  the  cornice,  the 
essential  feature  of  which  is  the  corona  or  drip-stone, 
a  surface  made  smooth  so  as  to  render  easy  the 
escape  of  water  from  the  roof.  The  lower,  nearly 
horizontal,  face  of  the  corona  consists  of  mutules,  a 
sort  of  corbel,  which  support  this  projecting  member. 

*  Euripides,  Ores/.  1369  ff. 


ARCHITECTURE. 


47 


They  are  covered  with  three  rows  of  truncated  cones, 
six  in  each  row,  termed  gutter.  Above  the  corona 
runs  the  cyma,  a  waving  beak-moulding,  which  on 
the  sides  of  the  temple  terminates  the  entablature, 
while  on  the  ends  of 
the  temple  it  forms 
the  border  of  the  pedi- 


ment. The  pediment 
is  the  large  triangular 
member  at  the  ends  of 
the  temple  above  the 
entablature,  and  is  en- 
closed between  t\vo 


copings. 

The  Greeks  termed 
the  Doric  the  masculine 
order  ;  in  it  nothing 
was  sacrificed  to  mere 
grace.  Its  proportions 
are  vigorous  ;  its  orna- 
mentation soberly  dis- 
tributed ;  the  general 
effect  is  one  of  power 
and  austere  simplicity, 
which  might  well  sug- 
gest to  the  Greeks  the  robust  outlines  of  the  masculine 
form. 

It  is  a  commonplace  among  archaeologists  of  the 
present  time  that  the  elements  of  the  Doric  order  are 
to  be  found  in  Oriental  architecture.  At  Karnak  and 
in  the  columns  of  the  Egyptian  tombs  at  Beni-Hassan 


FlG.    10. — DETAIL    OF   THE    MUTULES. 


4&  GREEK    AKCH.EOLCK.Y. 

we  recognise  the  prototype,  as  it  were,  of  the  Doric 
column  ;  the  capital,  composed  of  abacus  and  echinus 
is  found  in  Cyprus,  at  Golgos,  and  at  Kdde  ;  finally 
the  monuments  of  Pteria  in  .Asia  Minor  show  us 
small  structures  surmounted  by  a  pediment  enclosed 
with  curved  lines  resembling  outspread  wings,  which 
seems  to  explain  the  name  actos  ("eagle",  given 
by  the  Greeks  to  the  pediment.  But  while  we 
admit  this  transmission  of  forms,  made  above  all 
through  the  mediation  of  Asia  Minor  and  Phoenicia, 
we  must  allow  that  Greek  art  has  most  remarkably 
assimilated  these  elements,  and  has  transformed  them 
to  a  degree  that  amounts  to  original  creation.  Monu- 
ments still  in  existence  permit  us  to  follow  the  steps 
by  which  Greek  genius  approached  perfection  in  this 
respect. 

The  progress  of  the  Doric  order  may  be  traced  in 
the  study  of  dimensions,  which  were  slowly  modified 
into  what  became  canonical  proportions.  At  first 
massive  and  thickset,  the  columns  had  the  effect  of 
heaviness,  which  was  removed  as  the  column  became 
more  slender,  the  ratio  of  diameter  to  height  gradually 
increasing.  The  following  table  may  give  an  idea  of 
this  progress  : — 

UNCERTAIN    DATE.     Olympia,   Hera?um.     The   most   ancient 
Doric  temple  in  Greece  proper. 

Corinth.  The  column  is  not  as  much  as  even  four 
diameters  in  height :  it  is  extremely  heavy  in  aspect,  and 
the  applied  stucco  increases  this  effect. 

SEVENTH  CENTURY  i;.c.  (?)    Selinus.    The  old  temple  ;  height 
of  column,  four  and  two-fifths  diameters. 


ARCHITECTURE.  49 

SIXTH  CENTURY  B.C.  Selinus.  Thejuter'  temple  ;  height  of 
column,  four  and  one-half  diameters.  The  Temple  of  Zeus, 
four  and  two-thirds  diameters. 

Syracuse.  So-called  temple  of  Artemis  ;  height  of  column 
four  and  two-fifths  diameters.  Temple  of  Athena  (?)  at 
Santa-Maria  delle  Colonne  in  the  island  of  Ortygia;  height 
of  column  less  than  five  diameters. 

Pacslum.  Great  Temple  of  Poseidon,  where  the  entasis 
of  the  columns  is  noticeable  ;  height  of  column,  four  and 
one -half  diameters.  Temple  of  Demeter,  four  and  four- 
fifths  diameters. 

FIFTH  CENTURY  B.C.  /Egina.  Temple  of  Athena  ;  the  height 
of  the  columns  is  five  and  one-third  diameters.  The  age  of 
perfection  is  near  at  hand. 

Athens.  The  so-called  Temple  of  Theseus;  five  and  one- 
half  diameters.  These  are  the  proportions  of  the  best 
period. 

As  the  column  grew  more  slender  the  entablature 
diminished  in  size,  becoming  less  heavy  and  thus  more 
in  harmony  with  the  column.  The  capital  underwent 
similar  changes  ;  at  first  somewhat  flattened,  sunken, 
and  as  if  compressed  under  the  abacus,  the  echinus 
gradually  became  more  upright  in  its  lines,  and  the 
curves  became  firmer.  This  progress  can  easily  be 
measured  by  placing  side  by  side  for  comparison  two 
capitals,  one  from  the  old  temple  at  Selinus,  and  the 
other  from  yEgina  :  the  former  of  the  period  of  begin- 
nings, the  latter  near  the  period  of  perfection.  (Figs.  1 1 
and  12.)  In  fact,  it  was  in  the  fifth  century  B.C.  that 
Ictinus,  in  the  construction  of  the  Parthenon,  and  of 
the  temple  of  Apollo  Epicurius  at  Bassse,  employed 
the  Doric  in  its  most  severe  majesty.  In  the  Pro- 
pylaea,  Mnesicles  wedded  the  Ionic  and  Doric.  In 
E 


50  GKKKK    AK<  I!  1  <>I.O<;Y. 

course  of  time  unsuccessful  attempts  were  made  to 
give  grace  to  the  Doric  order,  and  these  led  to  its  deca- 
dence. In  the  fourth  century  it  is  still  employed,  hut 
the  Ionic  tends  to  dethrone  it.  It  was  thus  that 
Scopas,  in  the  temple  of  Athena  Alea  at  Tegca,  chose 
the  Ionic  as  the  principal  order,  and  relegated  the 
Doric  to  the  interior  of  the  building.  In  Ionia 
a  school  of  architects  was  formed  which  even  pro- 
scribed the  Doric  order.  Subsequently  Roman 
architecture  altered  and  perverted  all  the  propor- 
tions that  gave  the  order  its  original  beauty  :  there 
is  nothing  in  common  between  the  feeble  and 
heavy  Doric  described  by  Vitruvius  and  that  of  the 
Parthenon. 

$    3-    THE    IONIC    OKDKK. 

According  to  ancient  writers  the  Ionic  order  was 
of  more  recent  origin  than  the  Doric,  and  was  used 
for  the  first  time  in  Asia  Minor  in  the  temple  of 
Kphcsus,  built  by  Chcrsiphron  of  Gnosus  and  his  son 
Metagenes  (Olymp.  L.,  580 — 577  r,.C.).  By  these 
statements  we  are  to  understand  that  the  temple 
at  Kphcsus  marks  the  date  when  the  canonical 
proportions  of  the  order  had  become  fixed,  and 
this  to  such  an  extent  that  these  two  architects 
could  write  a  treatise  upon  it.  The  Ionic  order 
may,  then,  be  said  to  have  become  fully  developed 
by  the  middle  of  the  sixth  century  B.C.,  and  the 
testimony  of  ancient  authors  shows  that  it  originated 
in  Ionia. 

The    Ionic    column    differs    essentially    from     the 


ARCHITECTURE. 


FlG.    II. — CAPITAL    FROM    SELIXUS. 


FlG.    12. — CAPITAL    FROM    THE   TEMPLE   OF   ATHENA    IX 

E  2 


- 


11.1. 


Doric  column.  Instead  of  resting  directly  upon  the 
stylobate,  it  rests  upon  a  base  made  up  of  a  torus 
decorated  with  horizontal  stria.-,  of  a  scotia  or  concave 
moulding,  of  a  second  torus,  or  sometimes  a  ro\v  of 
double  rings.  The  base  formed  a  sort  of  elastic 
cushion,  the  horizontal  mouldings  of  which  con- 
trasted distinctly  with  the  vertical  lines  of  the  flut- 
ings  of  the  shaft.  The  latter  were  more  deeply  cut, 
but  were  of  less  width  than  in  the  Doric.  They 
were  separated  from  each  other  not  by  sharp  edges 
(arrises),  as  in  the  Doric,  but  by  narrow  flat  sur- 
faces. The  capital  was  fashioned  according  to  a 
rectangular  principle.  The  echinus  was  very  dimi- 
nutive, ornamented  with  ovules  and  rows  of  beads 
half  concealed  by  the  volutes,  which  spread  widely 
on  two  sides  :  the  thin  abacus  almost  vanishes 
from  sight  between  the  volutes  and  the  archi- 
trave. Occasionally  a  gorgcrin  or  band,  decorated 
with  palm  -  ornament  and  aquatic  plants,  runs 
below  the  capital  and  forms  the  upper  part  of  the 
shaft. 

The  architrave  is  no  longer  uniform  as  in  the 
Doric.  It  is  formed  of  three  divisions  or  faces  super- 
imposed in  such  a  way  that  the  second  juts  slightly 
beyond  the  first,  and  the  third  juts  slightly  beyond 
the  second.  The  uppermost  face  terminates  on  its 
higher  edge  in  a  row  of  headings,  and  is  united  with 
the  frieze  by  an  ogee  moulding.  The  frieze  is  orna- 
mented by  a  continuous  series  of  bas-reliefs,  in  imita- 
tion of  Oriental  buildings.  Finally,  the  corona,  entirely 
uniform,  protects  the  entablature,  and  is  terminated 


ARCHITECTURE. 


53 


by  a  cyma  decorated  with  headings  and  with  the  cgg- 
and-dart  moulding. 
This 


order,  the 
rival  of  the  Doric, 
was  born  in  Oriental 
Greece,  and  became 
the  national  order  of 
the  lonians,  as  the 
Doric  had  become 
the  order  of  the  Do- 
rians in  occidental 
Greece,  where  the 
Dorians  were  su- 
preme. And  yet  we 
cannot  maintain  that 
the  architects  of  the 
temple  at  Ephesus 
created  it  at  one 
stroke  ;  in  fact,  its  ele- 
ments had  long  been 
in  existence,  and  the 
lonians  on  taking  up 
their  abode  in  Asia 
Minor  had  found 
them  already  in  use. 
The  Oriental  origin 
of  Ionic  forms  is  no 
longer  contested 
at  the  present  da}-. 
Excavations  at 
Nineveh  and  at 


FlG.     13.  — BASE,  CAPITAL,   AND  EXTAI5- 
LATURE    OF    THE    IONIC    ORDER. 


54  (;RKI-:K  AKCILKOLO<;Y. 

Babylon,  and  discoveries  made  in  Phoenicia,  have 
disclosed  many  monuments  in  which  we  may  re- 
cognise a  proto- Ionic  type.  It  will  suffice  to  mention 
the  bas-reliefs  of  the  palace  of  Sargon  at  Khorsabad, 
and  those  of  Koyunjik,  which  give  instances  of 
columns  with  volutes.  In  Phoenicia,  and  at  Golgos, 
we  discover  the  principle  of  the  Ionic  capital,  and  a 
bas-relief  of  Pteria  in  Asia  Minor  shows  a  small 
building  with  columns  surmounted  by  volutes,  which 
presents  all  the  characteristic  elements  of  the  Greek 
order. 

Before  the  Ionic  order  had  become  independently 
developed,  the  principle  of  the  circular  capital  had 
been  applied  with  striking  effect  in  the  Doric  ;  the 
Ionic  architects  adopted  the  quadrangular  capital 
with  volutes,  and  the  column  with  base.  In  borrow- 
ing these  forms  from  Oriental  civilisations,  however, 
they  impressed  upon  them  their  own  native  cha- 
racteristics of  grace  and  ornate  elegance,  which  clearly 
contrasted  with  the  severe  bareness  of  the  Doric. 
To  carry  on  the  comparison  mentioned  above,  the 
Ionic  is  the  feminine  order  ;  its  elegant  and  slender 
forms  lend  themselves  easily  to  rich  ornamentation, 
which  strikingly  contrasts  with  the  austerity  of 
the  Doric.  The  marble  is  finch'  carved  wherever 
the  severity  of  Greek  taste,  ever  opposed  to  excess, 
would  permit.  Palm-leaves  of  exquisite  form, 
braids,  lilies,  and  the  egg-and-dart  moulding,  unite 
marvellously  with  the  curves  of  the  volutes  and  with 
the  rounded  forms  of  the  base.  Another  essential 
feature  of  the  Ionic  order  is  that,  instead  of  being 


ARCHITECTURE. 


55 


immutable  and  inflexible,  as  is  its  rival  order  the 
Doric,  it  is  susceptible  of  an  infinite  variety.  The 
base  admits  of  very  diverse  ornamentation.  In  Asia 
Minor,  in  the  temple  of  Apollo  Didymaeus,  no  two 
bases  are  precisely  alike  ;  in  one  of  them,  for  the 
upper  torus  was  substituted  a  cylindrical  band  decor- 


Fir,.    14. — DETAIL  OF  AN   IONIC   CAPITAL. 

ated  with  palm-leaves  ;  upon  another  the  scotise  gave 
way  to  a  dodecagonal  trunk,  each  face  of  which  was 
decorated  in  a  manner  peculiar  to  itself.  Occasion- 
ally, as  at  Ephesus,  the  shaft  was  ornamented  with 
sculptures.  The  capital  finally  shows  great  variations 
in  the  combination  of  its  lines,  which  may  be  grouped 
under  three  heads  : — 


5G 

(1)  The  volutes  of  the  capital  are  connected  by  a 
depressed  curved  line  ;  this  is  the  classical  style,  used 
in  the  temple  of  Windless  Victory  in  Athens. 

(2)  The  connecting   line   is  an    elevated   curve,   as 
at  Phigalia. 

(3)  The  connecting  line  is  a  straight  line  ;  thi>  was 
the  form  commonly  used  in  Asia  Minor. 

This  suppleness,  in  perfect  keeping  with  the  Greek 
instinct  for  freedom,  has  occasioned  the  just  remark 
that  the  Ionic  is  the  most  Greek  of  the  Greek  orders. 
It  is  in  fact  the  chief  element  among  the  innovations  in 
architecture  made  by  the  architects  of  the  age  of 
Pericles.  Passing  in  review  the  more  important  Ionic 
edifices,  we  shall  find  that  this  order  was  first  em- 
ployed in  the  temple  of  Artemis  at  Kphesus.  This 
temple  perished  in  a  conflagration  kindled  by  Hero- 
stratus,  but  remains  of  it  have  been  discovered  by  Mr. 
Wood,  among  the  foundations  of  the  new  temple 
erected  upon  the  site  of  the  old.  The  Henvum  of 
Samos,  begun  about  the  thirty-fifth  Olympiad  (640  P.c.) 
by  Rruecus  and  his  son  Tlicodorus,  was  at  first  con- 
formed to  the  Doric  order,  but  was  subsequently 
completed  according  to  Ionic  principles.  It  is  possible 
that  the  Ionic  was  employed,  iii  a  partial  degree,  in 
the  first  Hcratum,  an  Ionic  column  of  the  most  ancient 
type  having  been  found  in  Samos.  In  the  fifth 
century  P..r.  it  was  almost  exclusively  employed  at 
Athens.  Ictinus  had  already  shown  its  resources 
in  the  temple  of  Apollo  Kpicurius  at  K'iss;e,  near 
Phigalia.  In  Athens  the  order  is  most  strikingly 
shown  in  the  Propyhea,  where  it  is  united  with  the 


ARCHITECTURE.  57 

Doric  ;  in  the  charming  temple  of  Wingless  Victor}-, 
an  architectural  gem  with  its  limited  dimensions  ; 
finally  in  the  Erechtheum,  where  it  displays  all  its 
wealth  and  elegance. 

The  fourth  century  D.C.  is,  however,  pre-eminently 
the  Ionic  century.     This  supremacy  is  clearly  seen  in 


3^^ 


FlG.     15. — PALM-LEAVES,     PEARL-BEADINGS,    LGG-ANIJ-DART    AND 

LEAF-BUD  ORNAMENT.     (From  an  Ionic  capital. ) 

the  place  given  to  the  order  in  the  external  features 
of  the  temples.  In  Asia  Minor  the  order  blossomed 
forth  in  greatest  perfection  ;  it  attained  its  highest 
degree  of  excellence  under  the  architect  Pythius, 
who  built  the  Mausoleum,  and  the  temple  ot  Athena 
Polias  at  Piicne.  The  masters  of  his  school, 
Paeonius  of  Ephesus  and  Daphnis  of  Miletus,  con- 


58  CRKI-.K  Akm.KOi.or.Y. 

structcd  the  temple  of  Apollo  at  Didymi,  where  they 
applied  the  Ionic  with  a  marvellously  rich  inventive 
power.  The  flexibility  of  the  principles  of  the  order 
did  not  protect  it  against  radical  modifications,  intro- 
duced by  the  Asiatic  architects,  Hermogcnes  of 
Kphesus  and  Thargelius  of  Tralles.  The  former,  in 
the  temples  of  Tcos  and  Magnesia,  removed  one  ot 
the  colonnades,  and  altered  the  profile  of  the  bases  ; 
the  latter,  in  the  temple  of  Asclepius  at  Tralles,  sub- 
stituted the  Corinthian  for  the  Ionic  capital.  Here 
began  the  decadence  of  the  Ionic  order,  which  was 
continued  under  the  Roman  architects.  The  prin- 
ciples of  this  order,  as  formulated  by  Vitruvius,  show 
a  singular  degeneration. 

S    4.    THE    CORINTHIAN    ORDER. 

The  youngest  of  the  three  Greek  orders  of  archi- 
tecture is  the  Corinthian.  In  its  canonical  form  it  is 
composed  of  a  calathus,  a  sort  of  basket,  about  which 
are  applied  the  tall  leaves  of  the  acanthus,  and  of 
helices,  or  volutes  supporting  an  abacus  less  thick  than 
that  of  the  Doric  order,  and  concave  on  all  of  its  four 
vertical  surfaces.  The  projecting  corners  thus  formed 
require  a  support,  which  is  given  by  the  volutes.  The 
entablature  differs  but  slightly  from  that  of  the  Ionic 
order. 

It  is  hardly  necessary  to  recall  the  legend  by  which 
the  Greeks  sought  to  explain  the  origin  of  this  order. 
A  young  Corinthian  girl  died,  and  her  nurse  placed 
upon  the  grave  a  basket,  containing  some  articles  held 


ARCHITECTURE. 


59 


dear  in  life-time,  and  covered  it  with  a  tile.  In  the 
following  spring,  the  basket,  surrounded  by  the  leaves 
of  an  acanthus,  which  had  grown  there,  inspired  the 
sculptor  Callimachus  with  the  idea  of  the  Corinthian 
capital. 

Of  this  pretty  story  it  is  sufficient  only  to  retain 
the  name  of  the  artist.  Callimachus  lived  about  the 
eighty  -  fifth  Olympiad 
(440 — 437  B.C.).  Before 
this  time,  the  principle 
of  the  bell-shape,  upon 
which  this  system  rests, 
had  been  in  use  ;  the 
French  expedition  to  the 
Morea  discovered  at 
Corone  a  very  ancient 
type,  in  which  a  Doric 
abacus  rests  upon  a 
calathus,  decorated  at 
its  base  with  slender  and 
pointed  acanthus  leaves. 
The  modification  of 
Callimachus,  important 

enough  to  be  termed  an  invention,  succeeded  in  fixing 
the  canonical  forms  of  the  capital.  This  artist  was 
principally  a  worker  in  metal ;  he  made  the  golden 
lamp  of  the  temple  of  Athena  Polias  in  Athens.  We 
are  thus  justified  in  believing  that  the  Corinthian 
capital  conceived  by  him  was  of  metal.  The  deep 
concavity  of  the  acanthus  leaves,  the  ornaments 
fastening  the  leaves  to  the  calathus  in  such  a  way  as 


FlG.     l6. — CORINTHIAN    CAPITAL. 


Cio  cki.F.K   AUCII. v.oi.or.y. 

to  hide  the  heads  of  the  nails— in  fine,  all  the 
workmanship  of  the  capital — seems  to  eon  firm 
this  theory.  Furthermore,  the  capital  of  Callima- 
chus  was  designed  as  the  decoration  of  isolated 
columns  ;  the  (ireeks,  struck  by  its  beauty,  made 
an  order  of  it. 

About  the  ninety-sixth  Olympiad  (396  B.C.),  in  the 
temple  of  Athena  AleaatTegea,  Scopas  employed  the 
Corinthian  order  for  a  portion  of  the  columns  in  the 
interior.  Already,  in  431  U.r.,  Ictinus  had  used  the 
order  in  the  temple  at  Basso.-,  for  a  column  without 
doubt  intended  for  an  inner  sanctuary.  These  were, 
however,  but  isolated  experiments.  The  first  instance 
\vhcre  the  Corinthian  order  was  openly  applied  for 
the  exterior  seems  to  have  been  the  small  choragic 
monument  of  Lysicrates  in  Athens,  the  date  of  which, 
as  indicated  by  its  inscription,  is  the  second  year  of 
the  one  hundred  and  eleventh  Olympiad,  or  335  I  i.e. 
About  the  same  time,  it  is  seen  in  the  Didymaeum  of 
Miletus,  where  it  crowns  the  inner  columns  of  the 
facade.  Thargelius,  finally,  was  the  first  who,  in  the 
temple  of  Asclepius  at  Tralles,  built  a  colonnade  of 
Corinthian  columns  around  the  temple,  and  thus  con- 
secrated the  use  of  this,  the  youngest  of  the  Greek 
orders. 

The  Corinthian  order  flourished  vigorously  in  the 
Roman  epoch.  It  is  beyond  our  task  to  trace  this 
later  history,  but  it  is  nevertheless  interesting  to  note 
the  fact,  that  in  Roman  edifices  are  found  fine 
details  in  execution  that  confirm  the  theory  of  its 
origin  in  metallic  forms.  In  Rome,  for  example,  the 


ARCHITECTURE.  6 1 

order  followed  in  the  interior  of  the  Pantheon  of 
Agrippa  was  Corinthian,  where  the  columns  were  sur- 
mounted by  metallic  capitals  ;  and  the  portico  of  Cn. 
Octavius,  erected  in  147  B.C.,  after  a  victory  over 
Perseus,  was,  says  Pliny,  "called  Corinthian  because 
the  capitals  of  the  columns  were  of  brass." 


62 


CHAPTER    III. 

THE    MONUMENTS   OF    ARCHITECTURE. 


8   I.    THE    TKMPLE. 

IT  is  above  all  in  the  religious  architecture  of  the 
Greeks  that  \vc  can  study  the  use  of  the  orders,  the 
history  of  which  we  have  sketched  in  the  preceding 
chapter.  The  Greek  temple  is  an  organic  whole — the 
highest  expression  of  Greek  art :  painters  and  sculp- 
tors united  in  beautifying  the  dwelling  of  the  god,  in 
making  it  a  harmonious  whole,  the  unity  of  which 
was  fixed  by  rules  of  the  utmost  precision. 

The  choice  of  the  site  for  a  temple  was  not  left  to 
chance.  Usually,  according  to  legend,  the  divinity 
indicated  by  some  visible  sign  the  place  where  he 
wished  his  sanctuary  to  be  erected.  Thus  is  explained 
a  not  infrequent  occurrence — the  existence  of  temples 
far  from  any  human  habitations,  as  at /Egina,  Sunium, 
and  Didymi.  The  building,  facing  eastward,  was  sur- 
rounded by  a  sacred  precinct,  the  teinctws,  within 
which  the  piety  of  the  faithful  accumulated  votive 
offerings,  stc/cz,  and  statues.  On  passing  through 
this  enclosure  we  find  ourselves  in  the  direct  presence 
of  the  temple,  the  several  features  of  which  demand 
detailed  description. 


ARCHITECTURE.  63 

The  proportions. — The  fundamental  element  of  the 
Greek  temple  is  the  sanctuary  proper  (naos,  or  cello), 
surrounded  by  architectural  decorations  which  were 
variable  within  certain  limits  prescribed  by  the  prin- 
ciple of  proportions.  We  have  already  indicated  what 
influence  the  colonnade,  or  pteroma,  of  the  wooden  hut 
was  able  to  exercise  upon  Greek  architecture.  Greek 
temples  may  be  classified  according  to  the  application, 
more  or  less  complete,  of  the  principle  of  colonnades ; 
they  may  also  be  grouped  according  to  the  ordering 
of  their  columns. 

The  temple  is  said  to  be  in  antis  when  the  chief 
facade  is  decorated  by  two  columns,  and  when  the 
two  extremities  of  the  facade  are  formed  by  the  pro- 
longation of  the  side  walls  of  the  cella,  terminating  in 
pilasters.  It  is  prostyle  w-hen  for  these  pilasters  are 
substituted  columns  independent  of  the  walls  of  the 
cella;  amphiprostyle  when  it  has  a  facade  at  the  rear 
similar  to  that  in  front.*  In  peripteral  temples  the 
colonnade  is  prolonged  along  the  lateral  walls,  thus 
passing  completely  around  the  cella ;  the  dipteral 
temple  shows  a  double  colonnade  around  the  cella  ;  the 
monopterai  tern  pie  is  round  and  has  a  circular  colonnade, 
which  supports  a  cupola;  it  is  without  interior  walls 
or  cella  ;  this  form  is  rare  in  Greece.  These  simple 
principles  were  modified  by  certain  architects,  notably 
by  Hermogenes,  contemporary  with  Alexander,  who 
adopted  for  the  temple  of  Artemis  at  Magnesia  the 
pseudo-dipteral  principle,  in  which  a  second  row  of 
columns  was  attached  to  the  walls  of  the  cella. 
*  See  below  the  plan  of  the  Parthenon,  p.  69. 


64  C.Kl.KK    ARCH  F.OI.Or.Y. 

Another  classification  is  based  upon  the  number  of 
columns  in  the  facade.  With  four  columns  in  the 
facade,  the  temple  was  called  tctrastylc ;  with  six, 
Jic.viistylc ;  with  eight,  octostylc.  The  dccastylc  temple- 
had  ten  columns,  and  the  dodccaslylc  twelve. 

The  originality  of  the  Greek  temple  consisted 
above  all  in  its  scale  of  proportions  ;  it  was  by  this 
that  the  Greeks  impressed  upon  their  edifices  a  per- 
sonal and  individual  character,  with  a  scientific  skill 
which  the  discoveries  of  archaeology  only  confirm  and 
attest.  When  Egypt  was  opened  to  the  Greeks,  in 
the  middle  of  the  seventh  century  B.C.,  the  sensitive 
and  keen  spirit  of  the  Greeks  was  struck  with  the 
aspect  of  power  and  force  given  to  the  Egyptian 
temples  by  their  thickset  columns,  placed  close  to- 
gether. But  while  the  Egyptian  temple  had  only 
dimensions,  that  of  the  Greeks  had  proportions,  based 
upon  the  ratio  of  the  several  parts  of  the  building  to 
each  other,  expressed  in  terms  of  the  diameter  of  the 
column  taken  at  the  base. 

As  applied  in  determining  the  width  of  the  intcr- 
columniations,  this  principle  suggested  a  new  classifi- 
cation of  Greek  temples.  The  pycnostylc  temple  had 
intcrcolumniations  of  the  width  of  one  and  a  half 
measures,  i.e.,  in  the  pycnostylc  between  two  columns, 
the  diameter  of  the  column  at  its  base  may  be  placed 
one  and  a  half  times  ;  in  the  systylc,  twice  ;  in  the 
cnsfylc,  two  and  a  quarter  ;  in  the  diastylc,  three  ;  in 
the  arccostyle,  more  than  three  times. 

Variations  in  the  height  of  the  columns  and  of  the 
entablature  are  controlled  largely  by  these  differences: 


ARCHITECTURE.  65 

all  the  parts  of  the  temple  are  subject  to  the  same 
principle  to  such  an  extent  that  it  is  often  quite 
possible  completely  to  restore  an  ancient  temple,  with 
almost  perfect  accuracy,  from  the  debris  rescued  from 
time. 

The  temple  exterior. — The  general  features  of  the 
exterior  of  the  temple  were  not  uniform.  For  the 
sake  of  greater  precision  it  will  be  well  to  study  them 
in  a  selected  instance.  For  that  purpose  we  have 
chosen  the  Parthenon  as  a  type.* 

This  temple  rests  upon  a  base  reached  by  three 
high  marble  steps,  which  directly  supports  the  shafts 
of  the  Doric  columns  ;  these  surround  the  main 
edifice,  which  has  the  form  of  a  large  rectangle.  The 
architectural  ornamentation  is  of  the  severe  type  of 
the  Doric  order,  triglyphs,  guttae,  mutules.  Probably 
about  the  time  of  the  orator  Lycurgus  a  row  of 
golden  shields  was  hung  upon  the  architrave  of  the 
eastern  facade.  The  sculptured  metopes  alternating 
with  the  triglyphs,  like  so  many  square  pictures, 
depicted  a  series  of  subjects  borrowed  from  ancient 
legend,  dear  to  the  Athenians — the  combats  of  the 
Lapithae  and  Centaurs,  the  myth  of  Erechtheus  and 
Pandrosus,  the  story  of  the  fabulous  beginnings  of 
Athens,  and  the  legend  of  Athena.  The  pediments 
were  ornamented  with  statues  in  high  relief,  the  work 
of  Pheidias  and  of  Alcamenes,  representing,  on  the 
east,. the  birth  of  Athena  ;  and  on  the  west,  Poseidon 
and  Athena  disputing  for  the  possession  of  Attica. 

*  Compare  Michaelis,  Der  Parthenon^  with  atlas,  1870-- 71, 
F 


(1RF.FK    ARCII.KOLOflY. 


Under  the  colonnade,  on  the  upper  part  of  the 
wall  of  the  cella,  a  continuous  frie/e  was  carved  ;  this 
represented  the  Panathenaic  procession,  with  the 
priestesses  of  the  goddess,  maidens  (arrhcphori\  the 

group  of  victims  de- 
stined for  sacrifice, 
armed  war-chariots, 
and  a  long  line  of 
galloping  horsemen, 
whose  chlamydes  float 
in  the  wind. 

The  plastic  deco- 
ration of  the  exterior 
is  completed  by  the 
ornaments  placed  in 
the  highest  parts. 
These  were  the  gutters 
terminating  in  gar- 
goyles of  the  shape  of 
lions'  heads,  intended 
to  empty  the  water 
above  and  beyond 
the  corona.  The  ex- 
tremities and  the  apex  of  the  pediment  were  orna- 
mented by  acroteria,  a  sort  of  pedestal  supporting 
various  figures,  sphinxes,  vases,  tripods,  victories, 
lions.  This  arrangement,  while  not  universal,  was 
frequent  ;  it  is  to  be  found  in  the  Parthenon,  in 
the  temple  of  Wingless  Victory,  at  /Egina,  etc.  In 
the  temple  of  ./Egina  the  ornament  decorating  the 
apex  of  the  pediment  has  been  recovered,  as  well 


FlG.    17.— ACROTERIUM    AM)    (H'TTKR. 


ARCHITECTURE.  6/ 

as  two  figures  of  draped  women  that  flanked  this 
ornament.  Finally  we  know  that  brilliant  colours, 
judiciously  disposed,  distinctly  accented  the  archi- 
tectural details.  This  subject,  however,  will  sub- 
sequently receive  attention  when  we  treat  of  poly- 
chroiny. 

In  order  to  form  an  adequate  conception  of  the 
external  aspect  of  an  ancient    temple,  we  must  see 


FlG.    l8. — PEDIMENT   OF    THE    TEMPLE    OF    y 


it  in  its  surroundings,  under  a  brilliant  sun,  which, 
by  its  distinct  lights  and  shades,  brings  out  clearly 
the  finest  edges  cut  in  the  marble  ;  we  must  encom- 
pass it  with  a  girdle  of  mountains,  the  contours  of 
which  harmonise  with  the  horizontal  lines  of  the 
edifice,  or  contrast  with  the  vertical  columns.  Placed 
on  a  naked  rock,  levelled  only  about  the  temple, 
the  edifice  appeared  as  a  perfect  work,  complete  in 
itself.  The  Greek  had  no  trace  of  the  peculiarly 
modern  desire  to  give  effect  to  a  monument  by  the 
F  2 


68  GRKKK    ARCH.V.OLOr.Y. 

symmetrical  subordination  of  neighbouring  monu- 
ments. There  is  nothing  more  irregular  than  the 
arrangement  of  the  buildings  of  the  .Acropolis  of 
Athens.  The  Propyhea  which  formed  the  approach 
to  the  Parthenon  arc  not  in  its  axis.  The  temple  is 
thus  wholly  independent,  and  owes  its  great  beaut}' 
entirely  to  the  harmony  of  its  own  parts. 

Modern  research  has  shown  how  far  this  reasoned 
endeavour  after  artistic  perfection  was  carried.  Every- 
thing was  arranged  that  no  violence  should  be  done 
to  the  most  delicate  sensibility  in  vision.  From  the 
studies  of  Pcnncthornc,  Penrosc,  and  Paccard,  we 
learn  that  the  Parthenon  was,  in  its  main  outlines,  a 
sort  of  truncated  pyramid.  In  order  that  the  vertical 
lines  of  the  temple  might  appear  perpendicular, 
Ictinus,  the  architect,  aimed  to  correct  the  natural 
errors  of  vision  ;  he  inclined  the  walls  of  the  cclla  and 
the  axes  of  the  columns  inward  ;  the  columns  at  the 
corners  were  made  somewhat  thicker  and  heavier,  and 
thus,  surrounded  as  they  were  with  light  and  air,  they 
no  longer  had  the  appearance  of  thinness  in  com- 
parison with  the  other  columns.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  anta.%  the  cornices,  the  faces  of  the  corona.', 
instead  of  sloping  towards  the  interior,  inclined  out- 
ward, so  as  to  present  to  the  eye  of  the  spectator  the 
painted  ornamentation  with  which  they  were  covered. 
The  horizontal  lines  of  the  edifice  had  a  slight  curva- 
ture; the  lines  of  the  platform,  those  of  the  architrave, 
and  those  of  the  corona  which  ran  beneath  the  pedi- 
ment, were  lower  at  their  extremities,  thus  forming 
convex  arcs.  The  Greek  architect  took  lessons  from 


ARCHITECTURE. 


69 


9  • 


•  «.« 


O 


the  natural  curves  in  the  landscape,  the  curves  of 
the  mountains,  and  of  the  sea. 

Tlie  temple  interior. — The  interior  of  the  temple 
had  three  main  divisions  :  the  pronaos,  the  naos  or 
cella,  and  the  opisthodomos.  On  passing  between  the 
first  row  of  columns  of  the 
peristyle  directly  under  the 
pediment,  we  enter  the  pro- 
naos;  this  division  is  formed 
by  the  prolongation  of  the 
lateral  walls  of  the  cella  and 
a  transverse  wall.  (Fig.  19,  C.) 
A  row  of  columns  formed 
the  frontage  of  the  pronaos  ; 
a  lattice  grating  between  the 
columns  closed  it  when  neces- 
sary, and  made  secure  the 
objects  placed  within  the  en- 
closure. The  naos,  or  cella 
(D),  to  which  the  pronaos  gave 
access,  was  pre-eminently  the 
abode  of  the  god.  It  was  di- 
vided into  a  nave  and  two  aisles 
by  two  rows  of  superimposed 
columns.  In  each  of  the 
rows  the  lower  tier  of  columns, 
of  the  Doric  order,  rested 

directly  upon  the  pavement,  as  may  be  proved  from 
the  traces  left  on  the  flagstone  of  the  fluting  of  the 
columns,  which  was  done  when  they  were  in  position  ; 
this  lower  tier  supported  an  architrave  upon  which 


FlG.     19. — I'LAN    OF    A 
GREEK    TEMPLE. 

(Parthenon.) 


70  GREKK   ARCHAEOLOGY. 

rested  another  tier,  which  was  sometimes  Ionic,  some- 
times Doric.  It  is  not  known  whether  or  not  this 
second  story  was  floored,  thus  forming  a  sort  of  gallery. 
In  the  Parthenon  Paccard  has  failed  to  discover  any 
traces  of  stairs,  which  such  a  gallery  would  require 
as  a  means  of  access. 

The  statue  of  the  divinity  stood  at  the  further 
end  of  the  cella  (K).  In  the  Parthenon  it  was  the 
statue  of  Athena  Parthenos,  one  of  the  masterpieces 
of  Phcidias,  brilliant  with  costly  metals,  with  ivory 
and  precious  stones ;  it  rested  upon  a  pedestal  deli- 
cately carved.  To  form  an  idea  of  the  aspect,  at 
once  rich  and  imposing,  of  the  sanctuary  of  the  god- 
dess, we  must  bring  before  the  imagination  the 
columns  of  the  naos  decorated  with  shields  and 
armour ;  the  store  of  works  of  art,  votive  tablets, 
rich  stuffs,  accumulated  about  the  pedestal  of  Athena  ; 
the  statue  itself  resplendent  with  the  sheen  of  gold 
and  the  dead  white  of  ivory.  Byzantine  churches — 
St.  Mark's  at  Venice,  for  instance — can  alone  give  us 
an  idea  of  the  interior  decoration  of  a  Greek  naos. 
It  must  be  remembered  that  this  ornamentation  had  an 
infinite  variety  in  its  details.  At  Olympia  the  statue 
of  Zeus,  seated  upon  a  throne  of  gold,  ebony,  ivory, 
and  marble,  was  enclosed  within  low  barriers  covered 
with  paintings ;  the  floor  was  set  in  black  marble 
destined  to  receive  the  oil  poured  upon  the  ivory  of 
the  statue  to  preserve  it.  At  Didymi  the  statue  of 
Apollo  stood  under  a  small  shrine.  In  Athens,  in 
the  Ercchtheum,  a  golden  lamp,  the  work  of  Callima- 
chus,  was  placed  before  the  wooden  statue  of  Athena 


FlG.    20. — COLL'MNS    IN   THE   INTERIOR   OF   THE   NAOS. 


/2  GREEK    ARCII.-KOLOGY. 

Polias  ;  this  lamp  was  shaded  by  a  bronze  palm-tree, 
which  served  to  carry  the  smoke  to  the  roof. 

The  third  and  last  main  division  of  the  temple  was 
the  opisthodomos.  (Fig.  19,  !•'.)  Though  sometimes 
completely  isolated  from  the  eel  la,  the  opisthodomos 
usually  communicated  with  the  naos  by  means  of 
an  entrance  lying  in  line  with  the  entrances  from  the 
pronaos  ;  this  space  was  filled  with  a  bronze  door 
in  the  midst  of  a  grating.  In  the  Parthenon  it  is 
probable  that  the  ceiling  of  this  part  of  the  temple 
was  supported  by  four  columns.  In  the  opistho- 
domos were  preserved  the  treasures  of  the  goddess, 
made  up  of  gifts,  thank-offerings,  the  products  of 
sacred  property  of  all  sorts,  etc.  ;  here  also  were 
kept  objects  of  historic  interest,  as  the  sword  of  Mar- 
donius,  the  throne  of  Xerxes  with  feet  of  silver,  the 
treasure  of  the  State,  with  the  grand  seals.  These 
treasures  were  guarded  by  the  "  treasurers  of  the 
sacred  riches  of  Athena,"  who  made  an  inventor}-, 
every7  four  years,  of  the  property  in  their  keeping. 
Marble  stela  have  preserved  to  us  the  details  of 
such  inventories,  not  only  of  the  Parthenon,  but  also 
of  the  Asclcpicion  of  Athens,  and  of  the  temple  of 
Apollo  at  Delos.* 

*  Inventories  from  the  Parthenon  :  Corpus  Inscriplionum  Attic- 
ariini,  Vol.  I.  ;  Traditions  quustorum  Minerr<r.  Inventories  of  the 
Asclepieion  ;  C I  Irani  and  Martha,  Bull.  J<:  Corr.  helL'niqnf,  1878. 
Accounts  of  the  guardians  of  the  temple  of  Delos  :  Homolle,  Bull,  de 
Corr.  hfllenii/ue,  1878,  pp.  570 — 584.  The  remarkable  discoveries 
of  M.  Ilotnolle,  the  results  of  which  have  not  yet  been  published  in 
full,  make  it  possible  for  us  to  understand  in  its  detail  the  administra- 
tion of  the  temple  of  Delian  Apollo. 


ARCHITECTURE.  73 

These  inventories  of  the  Parthenon  mention  golden 
crowns,  couches  from  Chios,  breast-plates,  swords, 
lyres,  ivory  tablets,  gilded  shields,  vases,  statuettes  of 
precious  metals,  etc.  In  cases  of  great  financial  stress 
the  State  occasionally  made  use  of  the  private  treasure 
of  the  goddess.  Athena  thus  lent  to  Athens. 

The  general  plan  of  the  interior  of  Greek  temples 
varied  but  slightly ;  that  of  the  Parthenon  may  be 
regarded  as  the  prevalent  type.  Where,  however,  the 
temple  was  that  of  an  oracle  (wanteioii),  as  at  Didymi, 
the  arrangement  differed.  In  this  temple,  sacred  to 
Apollo,  the  pronaos  was  separated  from  the  naos  by  an 
apartment  where  visitors  who  had  come  to  consult  the 
oracle  waited  until  the  god  had  inspired  the  Pythia, 
or  priestess.  This  division  of  the  temple  was  termed 
the  cecos  (ot/co?). 

The  lighting  of  the  liypcetliral  temples.* — Few 
questions  have  been  more  discussed  than  that  of  the 
lighting  of  Greek  temples.  How  did  the  sunlight 
penetrate  into  those  temples  termed  by  the  Greeks 
hypcetJiral  (viro  aWepos)  ?  This  name  gives  us  to  under- 
stand that  certain  parts  of  the  edifice  were  without 
outer  covering,  and  exposed  to  the  free  air  ;  but  how 
are  we  to  reconcile  this  arrangement  with  the  ne- 
cessity of  protecting  from  the  weather  the  treasures 
accumulated  in  the  sanctuary,  and  the  image  of  the 
divinity  itself?  The  ruins  of  the  temples  offer  but 
little  help  in  the  solution  of  this  problem  ;  as  is  well 

*  Beule,  Hisloire  de  F  Art  grec  avant  Pericles,  p.  281  ff.  ;  Chipiez, 
Memoiresurle  Temple  hypethre,  Revue  archcol.,  new  series,  Vol.  XXXV.; 
Fergusson,  T/ie  Parthenon,  1884. 


74  C.RKKK    ARCH/KOLOGY. 

known,  in  the  complete  destruction  of  the  upper 
portions  of  the  temples  no  remains  have  been  pre- 
served of  the  roofing.  The  question,  then,  is  one  that 
can  be  solved  only  by  the  aid  of  theories  based  on  the 
statements  of  ancient  writers.  Among  these  authori- 
ties the  most  important  is  Vitruvius,  who  gives  the 
following  description  of  the  hyp;ethral  temple  : — "  The 
hypaethral  temple  has  ten  columns  in  the  pronaos  and 
in  the  posticum.  As  in  the  great  temples,  the  exterior 
colonnades  of  which  arc  made  of  two  rows  of  columns, 
the  hypnethral  temple  has  in  the  interior  of  the  cclla 
two  rows  of  superimposed  columns,  running  at  a 
distance  from  the  walls,  and  leaving  a  space  for 
moving  about,  as  in  the  porticoes  of  the  peristyle. 
The  intermediate  space  is  open  to  tJic  sky,  and  is  un- 
roofed;  at  either  extremity  there  arc  doors,  both  in 
the  pronaos  and  in  the  posticum."* 

Archaeologists  have  put  forth  several  theories 
aiming  to  harmonise  the  statements  of  the  texts  with 
the  necessities  of  construction.  According  to  one 
view,  widely  accepted,  and  adopted  by  Mr.  Wood  in 
his  reconstruction  of  the  Artemiscum  at  Ephesus.f  the 
temple  was  lighted  by  an  opening  (oTrcuor)  in  the  roof 
and  ceiling.  But  this  aperture,  however  small  it 
might  have  been,  would  have  permitted  rain-water  to 
fall  into  a  portion  of  the  cclla.  In  that  case  we 
arc  obliged  to  suppose  the  use  of  an  awning,  or  of 
translucent  stones,  which  is  a  gratuitous  hypothesis. 


*  Vitruvius,  III.  II.  8. 

t  J.  T.  Wood,  Discoveries  at  Efhcsus,  1877. 


76  C.RKKK    ARCII.KOLOC.Y. 

Fergusson  and  Canina*  have  supposed  that  a  sort  of 
lantern,  pierced  with  lateral  apertures,  might  have 
been  placed  above  the  opening.  This  arrangement 
would  have  required  an  ungainly  interruption  in  the 
lines  of  the  roof,  while  representations  of  temples  on 
medals  show  a  continuous  and  unbroken  line  of  roof- 
ing.t  The  most  recent  theory  is  that  of  M.  Chipicz, 
who  has  removed  the  difficulties  by  an  ingenious 
interpretation  of  the  text  of  Vitruvius.  "The  inter- 
mediate space"  he  understands  as  meaning  the  interval 
between  the  cclla  walls  and  the  nearest  series  of 
columns,  forming  a  sort  of  aisle  along  the  lateral  walls 
of  the  cella.  "If  we  remove  a  row  of  the  large  marble 
tiles  in  the  roof  [directly  above  this  intermediate 
space]  the  light  falls  first  .  .  .  upon  the  ceiling  of  these 
aisles,  then,  passing  inward  between  the  columns  of 
the  upper  tier,  is  spread  as  from  so  many  windows 
throughout  the  nave."  Attractive  as  this  theory  may 
be,  it  must  be  admitted  that  it  does  not  give  a  final 
solution,  and  that  the  question  demands  further 
examination,  as  do  so  many  other  problems  raised  by 
the  study  of  ancient  art. 

Polychromy.\ — For   a    long    time    the    idea    that 


*  Kergusson,  On  the  'J'einplcs  at  I-'.phesus    .    ...  as  illustrating  the 
Hyputhrcum  of  the  Greeks,  1877  ;  Canina,  Architecture!  an.'iea  (fescrilta, 
1844. 

t  Donaldson,  Archilcctiira  A'liiitismatiia,  1859,  401. 

*  1  littorf,  Architecture  polychrome  chez  les  Circs  (1830),  185 1 .    Beule, 
Ilistoirc  d£  F  Art  grcc  arant  JVriclts,  p.  244.     Valuable  data  for  this  ques- 
tion are  furnished  in  the  restorations  made  by  the  architects  pensioned 
by  the  French  Academy  in  Rome.     These  restorations  arc  preserved 
in  the  Ecole  des  Heaux-Arts  in  Paris. 


ARCHITECTURE.  77 

painted  decoration  was  applied  to  Greek  temples  was 
rejected  as  insulting  to  Greek  art.  The  polychromy 
of  the  temples  has  been  admitted  first  in  our  own  day, 
and  then  only  after  long  discussion.  This  is  not  the 
place  to  recall  the  several  phases  of  the  discussion, 
nor  to  show  how  modern  prejudice  has  slowly  yielded 
to  the  logic  of  facts.  To  Hittorf  belongs  the  credit  of 
having  united  the  arguments  in  favour  of  polychromy, 
and  of  having  clearly  stated  the  question.  His  views, 
ardently  adopted,  and  pushed  to  their  extreme,  have 
given  rise  to  extravagant  theories  of  polychromy, 
according  to  which  every  part  of  the  temple  was 
coated  with  striking  colours,  under  which  the  white- 
ness of  the  marble  entirely  disappeared.  A  more 
moderate  theory,  representing  a  system  of  partial 
polychromy,  admits  the  use  of  painting  in  a  manner 
more  restrained  and  more  in  keeping  with  the  sober 
taste  of  the  Greeks.  Furthermore,  it  has  been  proved 
that  polychromy  varied  according  to  the  epoch,  in  a 
retrogressive  movement:  at  first  applied  liberally  to 
the  stucco  which  coated  archaic  temples,  it  was 
reduced  with  the  progress  of  time  and  with  the  better 
taste  of  the  schools.  Thus  this  subject  of  polychromy 
cannot  be  entered  upon  without  taking  into  account 
periods,  localities,  and  the  various  schools  of  architects. 
The  traces  of  painting*  observed  upon  the 
various  architectural  members  of  the  temples  in 
y£gina,  Athens,  Sicily,  and  Magna  Graecia,  aid  in  the 


*  The  painting  was  encaustic  ;   the  artists  are  styled  fvicavrat  in 
an  inscription  relating  to  the  Erechtheum.     Corp.  Inscr.  Attic.,  I.  324. 


78  C.RF.KK    ARCII/KOLOdV. 

reconstruction  of  the  painted  decoration  of  the  Doric 
temples  of  the  sixth  anil  fifth  centuries  it.c.  In  the 
time  of  Peisistratus  the  columns  appear  to  have  been 
painted  a  pale  yellow  ;  the  colour  was  applied  to  the 
stucco  coating  of  the  stone,  which  offered  a  fine 
and  smooth  surface  to  receive  it.  It  is  not  known 
whether  it  was  customary  to  paint  the  capital  ;  the 
capitals  of  the  portico  at  Prcstum,  however,  should 
be  mentioned,  where  the  painted  palm-leaves  arc  still 
prominent,  the  remainder  of  the  stone  having  been 
corroded  by  the  sea-air.  The  architrave  in  /Egina 
was  painted  in  a  uniform  red  tint,  which  served  as  a 
background  for  the  gilded  shields,  and  for  votive 
inscriptions  in  metallic  letters.  Above  the  architrave 
the  frieze  presented  alternate  triglyphs  in  blue  and 
metopes  in  red  ;  on  the  red  background  of  the 
metopes,  carved  bas-reliefs,  with  their  accessories  of 
gilded  bronze,  stood  out  most  distinctly.  The  mutulcs 
of  the  cornice  were  blue.  In  the  pediment  the  tym- 
panum had  a  blue  background,  throwing  into  relief  the 
sculptured  figures  within  it ;  the  mouldings  surround- 
ing the  tympanum  were  decorated  either  with  red  and 
green  leaves  or  with  red  and  blue  leaves.  Add  to 
this,  above  the  entablature,  gutters  coloured  in  vivid 
hues,  tiles,  acroteria,  antefixcs  of  marble  or  of  terra- 
cotta, decorated  with  palm-leaves  or  with  Gorgons' 
heads,  and  one  may  form  some  conception,  of  archaic 
polychromy,  with  its  decided  tints,  which  arc  in  perfect 
accord  with  the  austere  lines  of  the  early  Doric. 

When  the  proportions  of  the  temple  became  more 
elegant,  and  marble  was  substituted  for  stone,and  in  con- 


ARCHITECTURE. 


79 


sequence  more  finished  work  was  required,  the  colours 
were  distributed  less  lavishly  than  before.  The  Ionic 
order  especially  employed  polychromy  with  refinement 
and  moderation.  The  delicate  lines,  the  exquisite 
chiselling  of  the  marble, 
which  ran  like  lace 
around  the  gorgerins  of 
the  capitals  and  under 
the  voluted  abacus, 
could  not  be  hidden 
under  a  bed  of  colour. 
The  colour  merely 
outlined  these  features, 
in  order  to  bring  them 
out  from  the  white- 
ness of  the  marble, 
flooded  as  it  was 
with  glowing  light  ; 
and  to  the  vivid  reds 
and  blues  were  added 
the  brilliancy  of  gild- 
ing. This  is  proved 

by  an  inscription  of  the  ninety-second  Olympiad, 
giving  the  account  of  some  expenses  of  the  Erech- 
theum.*  We  find  there  mentioned  "  one  hundred 
and  sixty-six  leaves  of  gold  at  one  drachma  each," 
which  were  intended  for  the  gilding  of  the  eyes  of  the 
volutes,  and  for  the  ornamental  work  in  the  ceiling. 
But  here,  as  in  the  Doric  order,  there  was  no  rigid 


FlG.  22.—  ANTEFIX   OF    MARBLE. 


*  Cord.  Inscr.  Attic.  I.  324. 


SO  C.REKK    ARCHEOLOGY. 

system  ;  the  use  of  polychromy  varied  with  the  tastes 
of  architects  and  with  the  traditions  of  the  schools. 

Observations  made  upon  the  ruins  of  Ionic  edifices 
at  Pricnc,  Didymi,Ephesus,  Halicarnassus,  and  Athens, 
make  it  possible  to  note  to  what  extent  polychromy 
was  associated  with  the  Ionic  order.  Two  colours, 
red  and  blue,  were  principally  used.  The  former  was 
reserved  for  backgrounds,  and  for  parts  in  the  shade, 
which  it  brought  out  with  its  deep  tints  :  thus  at 
Halicarnassus  the  ruins  of  the  Mausoleum  show  us 
rows  of  carved  pearls  standing  out  from  a  red  back- 
ground ;  sometimes  red  was  employed  to  outline  the 
egg-and-dart  ornament,*  on  the  darts,  and  on  the 
shell  of  the  ovules.  Blue  was  applied  to  the  higher, 
more  lighted  surfaces — to  the  bases  of  the  ovules,  for 
instance — while  the  more  salient  details  remained 
white.  From  this  arrangement  a  harmony  of  colours 
resulted,  subdued  and  yet  brilliant,  warm  and  intense 
shadows,  blues  softened  by  the  sunlight,  and  finally 
the  exquisite  carvings,  preserving  on  their  more  salient 
surfaces  the  brilliant  whiteness  of  the  marble  in  all 
its  purity. 

The  laws  of  polychromy  can  be  rigorously  estab- 
lished only  after  a  minute  study  of  all  the  data,  which 
seems  not  yet  to  have  been  made.  It  can  at  least  be 
said  at  present  that  in  all  points  it  was  in  perfect 
harmony  with  Greek  genius.  This  system,  so  con- 
trary to  our  modern  tastes  and  to  our  views  as  to  the 

*  Compare  Newton,  Halicarnassus,  Cnic/us,  and  BranchiJir, 
plate  xxix.,  various  mouldings  with  their  original  colours;  O.  Kayet 
Lt  Temple  d*  Apollon  Didymeen,  in  Gazette des  Beaux- Arts,  1876. 


<S2  (IRKKK    AKCH.I.OI.OCV. 

divisions  between  the  arts,  teaches  us  once  more  to 
\vhat  an  extent,  in  the  soul  of  the  Greek,  the  most 
diverse  arts  could  be  made  to  unite  for  a  common 
object.  We  can,  furthermore,  but  imperfectly  under- 
stand Greek  polychromy,  if  we  fail  to  remember  the 
conditions  of  climate  which  rendered  it  almost 
necessary.  In  that  golden  light,  the  uniform  tint  of 
marble  would  have  been  monotonous  ;  details  would 
have  been  lost  in  the  unbroken  white  sheen,  which  the 
brilliancy  of  the  summer  sun  would  have  rendered 
almost  blinding.  It  was  necessary  to  accent  the  chaste 
lines  of  the  edifice,  to  give  distinct  effect  to  the  details 
of  exquisite  workmanship,  and  to  brighten  them  by 
brilliant  hues,  which  wonderfully  harmonised  with  the 
clear  radiance  of  the  sunlit  heavens. 

S  2.    THE    PROPYL/KA.       PORTICOES. 

The  idea  of  erecting  in  front  of  temples  and  other 
great  edifices  a  structure  in  decoration  of  the  ap- 
proaches (propylcsa]  was  not  peculiar  to  the  Greeks. 
The  Egyptians  and  the  Assyrians  had  already  erected 
such  buildings.  Among  the  Greeks,  propyla^a  were  of 
frequent  occurrence,  as  in  Corinth,  at  Priene,  in  front  of 
the  temple  of  Athena  at  Sunium,  and  at  Elcusis.  The 
most  famous  were  those  on  the  Acropolis  of  Athens, 
which  shared  with  the  Parthenon  the  admiration  of 
all  Greece.  "  The  Propylaea  and  the  Parthenon," 
says  Philostratus,  "  would  have  been  glory  enough 
for  Pericles."  Begun  by  Mnesicles  in  437  B.C.  (in  the 
archonship  of  Euthymcncs),  and  five  years  in  con- 


ARCHITECTURE.  83 

structing,*  they  represented  the  perfection  of  civil 
architecture  in  Athens.  Their  plan  is  very  simple. 
The  chief  feature  was  a  wall  pierced  by  five  doors, 
the  central  one  of  which  was  the  greatest  in  size, 
admitting  chariots  and  horsemen.  In  front  of  this 
wall  stretched  a  hexastyle  portico  between  two  lateral 


[»  •   oi     m 


FlG.  24. — PLAN  OF  THE    1'ROPYL-iEA  OF   THE   ACROPOLIS   OF   ATHENS. 


wings,  each  of  which  had  its  portico,  that  on  the  right 
forming  a  hall  called  the  Pinacotlieca,  still  partially 
in  existence.  The  facade  of  the  wings  presented 
merely  a  wall  ornamented  by  a  frieze  of  triglyphs.  f 

*  The  Propylsea  were  never  finished  ;  one  may  to-day  see  unhewn 
portions  on  the  surfaces  of  blocks  of  marble. 

t  Compare  Beule,  VAcropole  d'Athcnes,  1863,  Bk.  I.,  chapter  vi.; 
Bohn,  Die  Propylden  der  Akropalis  zu  Athen,  1883. 
G  2 


84  C.UKKK    AKCH.V.OLO(;V. 

The  rear  wall,  looking  towards  the  Parthenon, 
was  likewise  provided  with  a  portico,  not  so  deep  as 
the  outer  one,  but  with  the  same  number  of  columns. 
This  plan,  simple  as  it  was,  was  executed  with  singular 
originality.  \Ve  have  already  remarked  that  the 
columns  of  the  two  lateral  porticoes  were  of  smaller 
dimensions,  that  they  might  not  throw  into  the  back- 
ground those  of  the  principal  part  of  the  building — the 
facade ;  the  doors  were  arranged  in  a  descending 
scale,  those  of  larger  size  being  in  the  centre,  as 
required  by  the  principle  of  harmony  and  unity. 
Finally,  by  a  bold  and  successful  stroke,  Mncsicles 
employed  the  Doric  and  Ionic  simultaneously,  the 
former  in  its  severe  beauty,  the  latter  in  its  chaste 
ornatcness,  each  in  perfect  accord  with  the  other. 
One  clement  of  beauty  in  the  Propylo,\i  which  pro- 
voked the  admiration  of  the  Greeks,  was  the  rare 
excellence  and  skill  of  the  workmanship.  Pausanias 
was  astonished  at  the  enormous  blocks  of  marble  put 
together  with  infinite  pains:  "The  Propylaea,"  he  says, 
"  are  made  of  white  marble ;  they  arc  the  most  admi- 
rable work  executed  up  to  the  present  time,  both  for 
the  size  of  the  blocks  employed  and  for  the  beauty  of 
workmanship."*  As  if  to  give  greater  prominence  to 
this  perfection  in  technique,  Mncsicles  provided  the 
Propylaea  with  a  sub-base  of  common  stone  from  the 
Peirx'iis,  thus  despising  accessories  and  searching  for 
beauty  in  the  work  itself. 

The  object  of  the  Propylaja  has  been  a  theme  of 

*  Pausanias,  I.  22. 


ARCHITECTURE.  85 

discussion.  Are  we  to  see  in  them  a  work  for  defence, 
built  to  protect  the  approaches  to  the  citadel  of 
Athens,  or  rather  a  decorative  structure  ?  The  latter, 
which  justifies  the  perfection  of  the  work,  is  probably 
the  correct  view. 

Of  the  porticoes  which  surrounded  the  market-places, 
of  the  gymnasia  and  the  palaestrae,  there  remain  only 
masses  of  debris.  In  Athens  the  most  important  ruins 
of  works  of  this  class  are  of  the  Roman  era.  Such, 
for  instance,  is  the  structure  which  marks  the  entrance 
to  the  agora,  or  market-place,  of  Athens ;  of  this  there 
remain  only  four  Doric  columns  supporting  a  pedi- 
ment. An  inscription  on  the  architrave  indicates  that 
the  edifice  was  built  by  the  liberality  of  Julius  Caesar 
and  of  Augustus,  in  the  archonship  of  Xicias,  and  was 
sacred  to  Athena  Archegetis.  Another  inscription, 
mentioning  an  edict  of  Hadrian  on  the  sale  of  oil,  con- 
firms the  hypothesis  that  these  ruins  are  of  a  portico 
in  the  agora.* 

To  the  Roman  era  likewise  belongs  the  stoa  or 
portico  of  Hadrian,  the  facade  of  which,  with  Corin- 
thian columns,  is  still  in  existence.  The  stoa  was 
a  quadrangular  enclosure,  surrounded  by  porticoes, 
with  halls  decorated  with  paintings  and  statues.  It 
had,  besides,  a  temple  to  all  the  gods,  or  Pantheon, 
and  a  library.  Athens,  like  all  Greek  cities,  possessed 
a  large  number  of  these  edifices  clustered  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  agora,  in  the  centre  of  public  life 

*  There  can  be  seen  on  the  site  of  ancient  Pompeiopolis,  in  Cilicia 
Trachea,  a  beautiful  colonnade  which  ran  along  a  street  or  dronios, 
undoubtedly  near  the  agora  of  that  city. 


86  (1RKFK    ARCH.l-OLOr.V. 

and  business.  \Ye  know,  more  from  the  descriptions 
of  ancient  writers  than  by  the  ruins,  of  the  portico  of 
Hermes,  the  gymnasium  of  Ptolemy,  the  portico  of 
Attains,  and  the  Poikile,  or  Painted  I'orch.  Here  it  was 
that  Athenians  passed  the  greater  part  of  the  day, 
with  their  fondness  for  life  in  the  open  air,  for  move- 
ment, and  for  political  discussion.  Under  these  por- 
ticoes, ornamented  with  statues  and  Hcrmaj,  they 
discussed  the  questions  of  the  clay,  or  treated  of 
the  affairs  of  the  State.  Nothing  was  neglected  in 
the  embellishment  of  these  popular  edifices.  The 
Poikile  was  ornamented  with  paintings  by  Pancenus, 
Polygnotus,  and  Micon,  representing  the  principal 
myths  of  Attica,  or  the  exploits  of  the  Athenians  in 
former  times  :  Theseus  fighting  with  the  Athenians 
against  the  Amazons  ;  the  .Athenians  at  CKnoe,  ready 
to  engage  in  battle  with  the  Lacedaemonians;  finally 
the  battle  of  Marathon,  where  the  protecting  divinities 
of  Attica  fought  in  the  front  rank  of  the  Athenian 
army.*  Throughout  his  life,  spent  for  the  most  part 
out  of  doors,  there  never  was  a  moment  when  the 
Athenian  had  not  before  his  eyes  some  memorial  of 
some  glorious  deed  in  the  history  of  his  country. 

The  life  of  the  Greek  was  divided  between  public 
affairs  and  religious  ceremonies.  The  history  of  the 
discipline  of  the  Ephcbi,  which  was  but  a  preparation 
for  the  duties  of  citizenship,  shows  how  numerous 
were  out-of-door  occupations,  f 


*  Pau.sania.s,  I.  15. 

t  Compare  A.  Dumont,  Essai  sur  F&phcbie  atliqiie,  1876. 


ARCHITECTURE.  87 

The  Greek  dwelling-house  was  accordingly  of  the 
greatest  simplicity,  and  was  constructed  of  the  humblest 
materials.  Ruins  of  houses,  still  visible  at  Stymphalus 
in  Arcadia,  at  Syracuse,  on  Pnyx  Hill  in  Athens, 
show  how  mean  was  the  private  residence  of  the 
Greek.  The  only  floor  was  the  level  rock,  which  was 
also  often  utilised  as  a  wall.  On  this  foundation  the 
house  was  raised  ;  the  ground  floor  was  reserved  for 
the  men  of  the  family  ;  the  first  floor,  or  gyn<zcemn,  for 
the  women  ;  the  whole  was  of  singularly  contracted 
dimensions.  A  Greek  city  offered  a  curious  contrast 
between  the  splendour  of  its  public  buildings  and 
monuments,  and  the  humble  aspect  of  its  private 
dwellings.  It  was  only  at  an  epoch  comparatively 
late,  and  under  the  influence  of  Asiatic  manners,  that 
luxury  was  introduced  in  private  buildings.  Demos- 
thenes complained  that  the  houses  of  private  citizens 
rivalled  public  edifices  in  their  magnificence.  "If  you 
consider  the  houses  of  Themistocles,  of  Miltiades,  and 
of  great  men  of  those  times,  you  will  see  that  they 
were  in  no  way  more  magnificent  than  were  the 
houses  of  the  majority  .  .  .  But  in  our  day  so  great 
is  the  wealth  of  many  citizens  engaging  in  public  life, 
that  numbers  of  them  have  built  private  houses  of 
greater  magnificence  than  are  many  even  of  our 
public  buildings."*  Still  later,  in  the  Alexandrine 
age,  the  refinements  in  the  arrangements  of  a  house 
were  carried  to  their  highest  pitch.  We  may  judge  of 
this  from  the  description  given  by  Vitruvius  of  a 

*  Demosthenes  (XXIII.),  Contra  Aris.'ocr.,  207,  208. 


>s^  C.KF.KK    AKril.r.ni.OCY. 

typical  Hellenic  house,  which  contained  porticoes  with 
columns,  bath-rooms,  a  picture  gallery,  exedne,  ban- 
quet halls,  and  library.  The  passage  from  Yitruvius 
makes  us  understand  how  the  influence  of  Ionia  had 
developed  among  the  Greeks  the  taste  for  luxury  and 
comfort;  "to  build  a  house  after  the  Ionian  manner" 
\v;is  a  common  saying. 

£   3.   T11K    THK.VI  RI.S.*       THK    ODKOXS.       THK    STADIUM. 

Ruins  of  theatres  arc  frequently  met  with  in 
Greece  and  in  .Asia  Minor:  remains  are  preserved, 
more  or  less  complete,  of  the  theatres  of  Tlos,  of 
Patara,  of  Caunus,  of  Telmissus,  of  Cnidus  in  .Asia 
Minor,  and  of  Sunium,  of  Kpidaurus,  of  Argos,  of 
Sparta,  etc.,  to  mention  only  the  more  important. 
As  a  type  we  select  the  theatre  of  Dionysus  in 
Athens  ;t  it  gives,  with  interesting  peculiarities  of  its 
own,  the  arrangements  commonly  adopted  in  this 
class  of  constructions.  This  Dionysiac  theatre  has 
been  well  known  only  since  the  excavations  begun  in 
1862  by  Strack,  a  German  architect.  Situated  at 
the  south-eastern  angle  of  the  Acropolis,  it  lies  in 
part  in  the  bed  of  the  rock,  from  which  some  of  the 
tiers  of  stone  scats  were  excavated.  The  southern 
wall  of  the  Acropolis  overlooks  it.  It  is  thus 

*  Wieseler,  Theatergclmtide,  1871  ;  O.  lienndorf,  /ft'i/riig'f  zur 
Kcnntniss  i/es  attisclicn  ThcaLrs,  18/5  ;  Ottfritd  Miiller,  History  ,y" 
Greek  Literature  (tr.  by  Lewis  and  Donaldson,  1850). 

t  Compare  Wheeler,  The  Theatre  of  Dionysus  (I\ifers  of  the 
American  School  at  Athens,  \G\.  I.),  1885. 


ARCHITECTURE.  89 

represented  on  an  Athenian  coin  or  medal,  where  the 
engraver  has  not  failed  to  indicate  the  imposing  view 
of  this  side  of  the  Acropolis  :  the  rocky  crags  pierced 
by  a  grotto,  the  wall  running  along  the  crown  of  the 
hill,  and  above  that  the  majestic  profile  of  the 
Parthenon.  The  interior  plan  of  the  theatre  of 
Dionysus  seems  to  have  served  as  a  model  for  other 
edifices  of  this  kind.  A  brief  description  will  thus 
give  a  clue  to  Greek  theatres  in  general.  The  theatre 
comprised  three  main  parts:  (i)  the  scene,  or  stage, 
(2)  the  orchestra,  and  (3)  the  theatre  proper,  i.e.,  the 
tiers  of  seats  reserved  for  the  spectators. 

The  stage  had  been  repaired  and  remodelled 
several  times,  first  in  the  reign  of  Hadrian,  and  after- 
wards under  Septimius  Severus,  by  an  architect  named 
Phaedrus.  The  object  of  these  modifications  was  to 
give  greater  width  to  the  stage  at  the  expense  of  the 
orchestra.  We  shall  here  consider  only  the  classical 
Hellenic  stage,  the  walls  of  which,  still  in  good  con- 
dition, are  visible  :  this  stage  dates  from  the  adminis- 
tration of  Lycurgus  (330  B.C.).  It  was  at  this  time 
that  the  great  orator,  charged  with  the  care  of  the 
finances  of  the  Athenian  republic,  completed  the  work 
upon  the  theatre  begun  in  496  B.C.  (Ol.  LXX.)  by 
architects  whose  names  are  unknown.  This  stage 
was  situated  far  back,  and  left  ample  space  for  the 
orchestra.  Like  all  Greek  stages,  it  comprised  two 
parts  ;  a  rectangular  space  where  the  actors  spoke  their 
parts  (\oyeiov~),  and  the  background  (aK^vrf),  with  a 
wall  penetrated  by  three  doors,  the  central  one  of 
which  was  called  the  royal  door.  At  each  of  the  two 


90  r.RKKK  ARrn.i:oLor,v. 

wings  at  the  ends  of  the  stage  was  another  door,  one 
of  which  was  supposed  to  lead  into  the  country,  the 
other  to  the  agora.  Tragedies  were  represented  in 
the  midst  of  permanent  decorations,  remains  of  which 
have  been  recovered  ;  fragments  of  Doric  columns,  of 
architraves,  of  pediments,  formed  this  decoration, 
which  was  thus  of  a  simple  and  purely  architectural 
character.  Other  painted  decorations  were  placed  in 
front  of  the  rear  wall.  Complicated  mechanical  con- 
trivances, which  brought  apparitions  into  view,  or 
created  other  necessary  scenic  effects,  were  kept  in  a 
place  below  the  stage  (VTTOCTK)JI'IOI>),  divided  into 
separate  compartments,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  theatre 
at  Athens.  The  stage,  a  platform  somewhat  above 
the  level  of  the  orchestra  (about  one  and  a  half 
metres),  rested  upon  a  wall  decorated  with  sculptures. 
The  wall  of  the  stage,  as  reconstructed  by  Phajdrus, 
has  been  recovered.  Figures  of  kneeling  satyrs 
support  \hc proscenium  after  the  manner  of  Caryatides : 
the  intervals  between  these  figures  are  filled  up 
with  bas-reliefs  representing  scenes  from  the  life  of 
Dionysus.  A  staircase  in  the  centre  connected  the 
Xoyetoi/  with  the  orchestra. 

This  part  of  the  theatre,  the  orchestra,  which 
separated  the  stage  from  the  tiers  of  scats,  had  the 
form  of  a  semicircle,  and  was  paved  with  marble 
flags.  In  the  centre  rose  the  altar  of  Dionysus 
(tfiyieA.?;),  around  which  moved  the  chorus  under  the 
leadership  of  the  coryphaeus.  The  semicircle  out- 
lining the  orchestra  was  defined  by  the  front  row  of  the 
seats,  which,  rising  as  in  an  amphitheatre,  were  divided 


FlG.   25. — PLAN    OF   THE   EXCAVATED   THEATRE   OF    DIONYSUS. 

A. — Hellenic  stage  ;  B. — Stage  of  time  of  Hadrian;  C. — Stage  of  Septimius  Severus  ; 
D. — Marble  seats  for  those  having  the  right  of  proedria  ;  E. — Podium  separating  the 
seats  from  the  orchestra  ;  G. — Orchestra. 


Q2  CKKKK    ARCH.F.OLOGV. 

into  compartments  by  flights  of  steps  (/<-X/'/za«-e\).  The 
tiers  of  scats  were  doubtless  remodelled  under 
Hadrian,  for  the  number  of  compartments  (tcepKiSes) 
is  thirteen,  and  thirteen  was  the  number  of  the 
Attic  tribes  under  this  emperor.  The  front  row  of 
scats  was  reserved  for  the  priest  and  for  the  archons, 
who  had  by  their  offices  this  right  of  Trpoebpi'a; 
the  next  two  tiers  were  also  occupied  by  people  of 
note.  These  seats,  having  the  form  of  easy  arm- 
chairs, are  of  Pcntclic  marble  ;  the  rows  arc  separated 
into  scats  by  sculptured  divisions  ;  the  scat  itself  is 
slightly  hollowed  to  receive  a  cushion.  An  inscription, 
cut  upon  the  lower  front  edge  of  the  marble  chair,  in- 
dicates to  what  high  personage  thescat  belongs,  whether 
priestly  or  political.*  Here  appear  the  names — to 
mention  only  a  few — of  the  priest  of  Olympian  Zeus, 
of  Zeus  Polieus  ("protector  of  the  city"),  of  the 
Delian  Apollo,  of  Poseidon  Phytalmius,  of  the  Pythian 
Apollo ;  also  of  the  interpreter  of  the  oracle  of  Apollo, 
of  the  hierophant  who  presided  at  the  initiation  into 
the  Elcusinian  mysteries,  of  the  hieromnemon,  deputy 
on  the  part  of  Athens  to  the  Amphictyonic  Council, 
and  finally,  of  the  archons  (eponymous,  basilcus, 
polcmarch,  and  the  thcsmothctns).  The  chair  which 
is  directly  in  front  of  the  stage  is  that  of  the  priest  oi 
Dionysus  Klcuthercus,  the  god  to  whom  the  theatre 
was  sacred  ;f  it  was  further  distinguished  from  the 

*  Corp.  Inscr.  Attic.,  Vol.  III.,  i.  240^".  These  Inscriptions  are 
a  most  valuable  material  for  the  study  of  the  Athenian  priesthood  and 
of  the  hierarchy  in  general. 

t  It  is  inscribed  IEPEn2AIONT2OTEAET0EPEn2. 


ARCHITECTURE. 


93 


others    by  a  richer  ornamentation.      The  back  was 
decorated  by  an  elegant  bas-relief  representing  satyrs 


FlG.   26. — CHAIR   OF   THE    PRIEST   OF    DIONYSUS    ELEUTHEREUS. 

in  the  archaic  style  ;  on  the  front  of  the  seat  was 
sculptured  a  miniature  frieze  representing  a  combat 
between  two  Arimaspes  and  griffins  ;  finally  on  each 
of  the  arms  was  the  figure  of  Agon,  the  presiding 


94  <;KEKK  AKCII.KOLOCIV. 

genius  of  cock-fights,  which  took  place  within  the 
precincts  of  the  theatre.  The  priest  of  Dionysus  had 
thus  the  place  of  honour.  We  can  easily  understand 
the  comical  effect  produced  by  one  of  the  scenes  in  the 
Frogs  of  Aristophanes.  When  Dionysus,  accompanied 
by  his  slave  Xanthias,  arrives  in  Hades,  and  is 
struck  with  terror  at  the  monsters  guarding  the  en- 
trance, the  actor  in  the  role  of  the  god  turns  towards 
the  audience  and  exclaims,  "O  priest,  rescue  me,  that 
I  may  become  your  comrade  at  the  drinking  bouts  !* 
To  the  right  and  left  of  the  stage  opened  large 
passage-ways,  formerly  decorated  with  statues ;  on 
the  pedestals,  which  alone  are  preserved,  we  read  the 
names  of  the  most  famous  dramatic  poets,  Thcspis, 
Eupolis,  Timostratus,  and  Menandcr. 

With  the  history  of  the  Attic  theatre  is  naturally 
connected  the  study  of  the  choragic  monuments, 
mementos  of  dramatic  victories  won  at  the  festivals  of 
Dionysus.  It  is  well  known  that  in  Athens  theatrical 
representations  had  the  character  of  a  national  re- 
ligious institution  ;  the  duty  of  forming  and  training  the 
lyric  choruses  devolved  upon  the  wealthiest  citizens, 
who  met  the  expenses  of  the  choragia.  The  choragtis 
had  the  duty  of  bringing  together  the  various  elements 
of  the  chorus,  composed  of  men,  boys,  pyrrhic  dancers, 
cyclic  dancers,  flute-players,  and  of  furnishing  the 
costumes,  masks,  and  other  accessories;  he  was  selected 
according  to  tribe.  If  the  chorus  formed  by  him  won 
the  victory,  the  choragus  received  as  prize  a  bronze 

*  Aristophanes,  /\a  i.  297. 


FlG.   27. — CHORAGIC   MONUMENT   OF   LYSICRATES. 


<)6  (iKKKK    AKCII.MOlAXJV. 

tripod,  which  he  dedicated,  in  the  name  of  his  tribe, 
cither  alongside  one  of  the  streets  of  .Athens  termed 
Street  of  the  Tripod,  or  in  the  temenos  of  Dionysus, 
or  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  theatre.  The  tripod 
was  placed  on  a  small  architectural  monument,  the 
character  of  which  greatly  varied.  In  a  grotto, 
situated  above  the  theatre,  and  transformed  into  a 
shrine  by  the  victorious  choragus  Thrasyllus  (320  B.C.), 
the  tripods  were  placed  on  columns  with  triangular 
capitals.  Other  edifices  assumed  the  form  of  a  small 
pilastcred  temple,  in  the  niche  of  which  was  placed 
the  tripod  received  as  a  prize.  The  best  known 
choragic  monument  is  that  of  Lysicrates,  in  the  Street 
of  the  Tripods.  It  is  composed  of  a  quadrangular 
base  of  white  marble  veined  with  blue,  which  supports 
a  little  edifice  in  the  form  of  a  rotunda.  Six  fluted 
columns  with  Corinthian  capitals  bear  a  frieze  deli- 
cately ornamented  with  bas-reliefs,  representing  the 
defeat  of  the  Tyrrhenian  pirates  by  Dionysus,  and 
their  transformation  into  dolphins.  The  spaces  be- 
tween the  columns  are  filled  with  marble  slabs  inserted 
with  great  care,  and  decorated  in  turn  with  tripods  in 
relief.  The  edifice  was  covered  with  a  marble  roof  in 
imitation  of  tiles,  and  was  surmounted  by  a  flower 
ornament,  which  was  the  direct  support  of  the  tripod. 
The  elate  of  this  monument  (335 — 334  B.C.),  which 
offers  one  of  the  earliest  examples  of  the  Corinthian 
order  as  applied  to  architecture,  is  given  in  an  inscrip- 
tion : — "  Lysicrates,  son  of  Lysitheides,  of  the  clemc 
Cicynna  was  choragus;  the  tribe  Acamantis  received 
the  prize  for  the  chorus  of  boys ;  Theon  played  the 


ARCHITECTURE.  97 

flute ;    Lysiades   the    Athenian    trained    the    chorus ; 
Euaenetus  was  archon." 

The  name  odeon  was  given  to  theatres  especially  de- 
signed for  concerts;  in  theseedifices  poets  and  musicians 
exercised  their  talents  before  submitting  their  work  to 
the  judgment  of  the  public.  The  odeons  differed 
from  the  theatres  chiefly  in  their  roof  and  in  several 
peculiarities  of  their  internal  arrangements  ;  rows  of 
columns  supported  the  roof,  and  the  seats,  arranged  in 
a  semicircle,  were  very  numerous.  Athens  possessed 
a  celebrated  odeon,  erected  by  Pericles  to  take  the 
place  of  the  earlier  building  situated  near  the  Ennea- 
crunus.  The  odeon  of  Pericles  was  not  far  from  the 
Acropolis  ;  it  adjoined  the  theatre  of  Dionysus  on  the 
east.  The  roof,  of  a  pointed  shape,  was  decorated 
with  the  masts  and  rigging  of  Persian  ships,  making 
the  building  resemble  the  tent  of  Xerxes.  Plutarch 
speaks  of  the  great  number  of  seats  and  of  columns 
which  the  building  contained.  Although  it  is  difficult 
at  the  present  time  to  form  an  exact  idea  of  it,  we 
may  discover  the  general  arrangements,  common  to 
this  class  of  buildings,  in  the  ruins  of  the  odeon  built 
by  Herodes  Atticus  in  memory  of  his  wife  Regilla. 
This  was  the  largest  of  odeons  known,  and  its  ceiling 
of  cedar  was  of  rare  magnificence.  To-day,  thanks 
to  the  excavations  made  in  1857  an<^  ^SS,  we 
may  clearly  distinguish  the  tiers  of  seats  with  their 
corridors,  and  the  walls,  pierced  with  arcades,  which 
supported  the  proscenium.* 

*  There  is  a  restoration  of  the  Odeon  of  Regilla,  by  M.  Daumet, 
in  the  Ecole  des  Beaux-Arts  in  Paris. 
II 


9$  <;KKI-:K  ARCII.I-'.OI.OOV. 

The  stadium,  where  pugilists,  runners,  etc.,  con- 
tended, was  distinct  from  the  hippodrotnos  reserved  f»r 
chariot  races.  Their  general  arrangements  differed  Init 
slightly,  because  at  the  outset  a  very  simple  plan  had 
been  adopted  for  each.  They  were  large,  level  spaces, 
enclosed  within  artificial  embankments,  or  situated 
between  natural  elevations,  along  which  the  spectators 
assembled.  The  work  of  the  architect  and  of  the 
engineer  was  limited  entirely  to  the  arrangement  of 
the  barriers  or  starting  posts  (carccrcs}.  Those  of  the 
hippodrome  of  Olympia,  constructed  by  Clecetas, 
were  famous  ;  they  were,  so  to  speak,  boxes  in  which 
the  chariots  were  shut  in  ;  when  the  gates,  which 
were  placed  along  a  curved  line,  were  opened,  it  was 
possible  for  the  chariots  to  start  at  a  signal  without 
giving  any  one  of  them  an  advantage  over  the  others. 
The  arena  was  divided  into  two  parts  "by  an  em- 
bankment of  earth,  at  the  end  of  which  was  the  limit, 
around  which  it  was  necessary  for  the  chariots  to  turn. 

The  stadium  is  a  long  and  narrow  arena,  ter- 
minating at  one  of  its  extremities  in  a  semicircle 
(a<pevBoi>r)\  which  resembles  a  theatre  in  its  tiers  of 
seats  and  its  rounded  form.  These  tiers  were  ex- 
tended along  the  sides  of  the  arena,  as  ma}-  be  seen  in 
the  well-preserved  stadium  at  Cibyra,  in  .Asia  Minor. 
The  essential  difference  between  the  stadium  and  the 
hippodrome  lies  principally  in  the  absence  in  the 
former  of  the  stalls  and  carcercs  intended  to  hold  the 
chariots  ;  in  other  respects  we  find  the  same  arrange- 
ments, and  analogous  parts  in  each  arc  designated  by 
the  same  names.  With  the  progress  of  luxury,  both 


ARCHITECTURE.  99 

public  and  private,  the  stadia  received  greater  ele- 
gance, as  .in  tiers  of  marble  seats,  in  colonnades 
traces  of  which  have  been  found  in  the  ruins  of  the 
stadium  of  Messene.  The  Panathenaic  stadium  in 
Athens,  used  at  the  Panathenaic  festivals,  was  ma^ni- 

J  O 

ficently  ornamented  by  Herodes  Atticus,  who  faced  the 
seats  with  Pentelic  marble.  Pausanias  and  Philo- 
stratus  speak  with  admiration  of  this  expensive  work, 
executed  in  four  years,  which  thoroughly  transformed 
the  ancient  stadium  built  under  Lycurgus  in  350  B.C. 
It  was  here,  many  years  later,  that  Hadrian  caused 
the  Athenians  to  witness  bloody  gladiatorial  contests, 
which  he  introduced  according  to  Roman  usage. 


II  2 


SCULPTURE. 


GENERAL  WORKS. 

K.    O.    ML'LLER,  Handbuch   der  Arch'dologie  der  Kunst,    1830   (third  edition  by 

Welcker,  1845  ;  English  translation  by  Leitch,  second  edition,  1850). 
BRITXN,  Geschiclite  der  griechischen  Kunstler,  1853 — 1859. 
OVERBECK,    Geschichte    der  griechischen  Plastik ;    third  edition,  1881—1882.   Die 

antiken  Schriftquellen  zur  Geschiclite  der  Bildenden  K'unste  bei  den  Gncchen 

1868. 
L.  M.  MITCHELL,  A  History  of  Ancient  Sculpture,  1883  ;  Se'.ections  from  Ancient 

Sculpture  (phototypes),  1883. 
A.  S.  MURRAY,  A  History  of  Greek  Sculpture,  1880—1883. 

COLLECTIONS   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS. 

MiJLLER-WiESELER,  Denkm'dler  der  alten  Kunst,  1854 — 1881. 

CLARAC,  Musee  cie  Sculpture,  1826—1833. 

WELCKER,  Alte  Denkm'dler,  1849—1864. 

O.  RAYET,  Monuments  de  I' Art  antique,  1881—1884. 

The   great  periodical  publications,  such  as   Monumenti  inediti    deir   Institute  di 
Corrispondenza  Archeologica  di  Roma,  1829  ff.  ;    Arch&ologiscke  Zeitung, 
1843^.  ;  Gazette  archeologique,  1875  jf.  ;  Journal  of  Hellenic  Studies,  1880  ff.< 
etc. 
Other  important  special  works  will  be  cited  as  occasion  may  demand. 


CHAPTER  I. 

FIRST      PERIOD. 

LEGENDARY    BEGINNINGS,    DOWN    TO   THE    CLOSE    OF    THE 
SEVENTH    CENTURY    B.C. 

ALTHOUGH  the  industrial  arts  were  early  cultivated  in 
Greece,  the  art  of  sculpture,  properly  so  called — the 
art  that  attempts  to  reproduce  the  human  form  and 


102  C.RF.KK    AKCII.r.OI.OCY. 

to  translate,  as  it  were,  religious  or  poetic  conceptions 
into  visible  shapes— remained  for  a  long  time  in  a  state 
of  imperfect  development.  It  was  essentially  religious 
at  its  beginning,  and  its  first  efforts  were  devoted  to 
presenting  the  gods  in  tangible  forms.  This,  however, 
could  not  be  done  until  poetry,  less  trammelled,  hail 
given  to  the  gods  a  fixed  plastic  character,  and  had 
thus  furnished  sculpture  with  the  elements  for  its 
task.  The  development  of  sculpture  was  thus  sub- 
ordinated to  that  of  the  poetic  sense  and  religious 
sentiment. 

The    most   ancient    representations    of    Hellenic 
divinities  were  of  the  nature  of  symbols   rather  than 
of  plastic  works.       The   piety   of  primitive  ages  was 
content   with    a    mere  external    sign 
which    personified    the    god    but    was 
not  an  image  of  him.     Thus   Kros  at 
Thcspi.-e,  and  the  Charites  at  Orcho- 
menus,    were    symbolised    by    stones 
(dpyol  \l6oi]  ;    .Apollo     Agyicus     was 
represented  bv  a  column  on  the  coins 

APOLI.O    ACYIKUS.  -        .         ,  .  ,  TT  r        . 

of    Ambracia  ;    the    11  era    of     Argos 

(On  an  Anibra-  .  , 

clan  coin.)  was  a  simple  column  (KIQ>V)  ',  the 

Dioscuri  of  Sparta  had  the  form  of 
two  upright  bars  united  by  a  cross  beam.  These 
rude  symbols  need  not  detain  us ;  they  belong  rather 
to  the  field  of  illustrated  mythology  than  to  that  of 
the  history  of  Sculpture. 

The  first  statues  in  which  the  attempt  was  made 
to  represent  the  gods  in  human  form  were  of  wood 
(^oava).  These  figures  were  clad  in  a  garment  as 


SCULPTURE.  103 

tightly  fitting  as  a  sheath,  "  with  shut  eyes,  arms 
hanging  down  almost  glued  to  the  sides."*  These 
ancient  wooden  statues  were  without  exception  ob- 
jects of  worship.  The  Greek  ascribed  to  them  a 
fabulous  origin,  and  preserved  them  with  religious 
care.  Pausanias,  who  lived  in  the  time  of  Hadrian, 
saw  them  in  the  temples,  where  they  excited  the 
reverent  emotion  of  devotees  and  the  raillery  of  scep- 
tics.f  Kept  carefully  in  repair,  painted  white  or  ver- 
milion, they  were  clothed  in  rich  materials,  and  owned 
complete  wardrobes  like  that  of  the  Brauronian 
Artemis,  the  contents  of  which  are  given  us  in  an 
inscription.  Pictures  of  these  %oava  are  often  found 
upon  painted  vases  ;  but  there  are  other  materials  for 
stud}7  which  give  us  more  exact  knowledge  as  to 
their  style.  We  have  already  mentioned  the  Artemis 
of  Dclos  as  one  of  the  most  ancient  monuments  of 
Greek  statuary  art.  Without  going  back  to  the 
remotest  epoch,  we  arc  enabled  from  this  marble  from 
Delos  to  understand  something  of  the  stiffness  of 
attitude  of  the  %oava.  There  is  also  in  the  British 
Museum  an  imitation  in  stone  of  a  %oavov  found  near 
Rhamnus  in  Attica.  In  these  oldest  wooden  statues 
the  representation  of  the  human  face  was  most 
infantile ;  a  simple  line  indicated  the  eyes,  which 
appeared  closed.  It  is  thus  that  the  human  figure  is 


*  Diodorus  Siculus,  iv.  76. 

t  In  39  A.D.  they  figured  in  ceremonies  of  worship.  Compare  an 
nscription  from  Cyzicus,  mentioning  the  festivals  celebrated  in  honour 
of  Antonia  Tryphaena.  Curtius,  Monalsbcrichle  dtr  Berlinere  Akad.  a. 
IVissensch.,  January,  1874. 


IO4  r.RKKK    ARCH.KOLOGY. 

treated  in  some  interesting  marbles  in  the  Louvre,  one 
of  which  came  from  Paros.  \Ye  here  recognise  with- 
out difficulty  the  vague  and  uncertain  attempts  of  a 
rude  and  cautious  art,  which  limits  itself  simply  to 
reproducing  the  essential  features  of  the  face. 

The  Greeks  ascribed  their  first  progress  in  sculp- 
ture to  Da-dalus,  a  legendary  personage  said  to  have 
been  born  in  Athens.  "  The  statues  lie  made  were 
like  living  beings  :  they  saw,  they  walked.  It  was  he 
who  first  opened  their  eyes,  unbound  their  legs  and 
their  arms."*  By  a  tendency  natural  to  their  genius,  the 
Greeks  personified  in  him  the  achievements  of  a  long 
period  ;  they  never  mention  another  artist  with  him. 
The  name  of  Daxlalus  covers  a  whole  school  of  ob- 
scure artists,  who  by  a  gradual  progress  had  given 
some  appearance  of  life  and  movement  to  the  primitive 
images,  and  had  emancipated  themselves  from  a  rigid 
tradition.  Wooden  statues  ascribed  to  Daedalus  were 
numerous,  and  Pausanias  notes  them  carefully.  They 
are  distinguished  from  more  ancient  images  by  their 
open  eyes,  by  their  arms  detached  from  the  body, 
and  by  their  attitude,  which  was  that  of  a  person 
walking. 

This  is  not  the  place  to  dwell  at  length  upon  these 
modest  beginnings  of  plastic  art,  nor  is  it  necessary  to 
dilate  upon  the  fables  in  which  the  Greeks  disguised 
these  beginnings.  In  the  view  of  the  Greeks,  all  their 
arts  were  born  on  their  own  soil, and  with  each  invention 
some  marvellous  or  charming  legend  was  connected. 

*  Dioclorus  Siculus,  //</</. 


SCULPTURE.  105 

The  story  of  the  potter  Butades,  who  discovered  the 
art  of  modelling,  is  well  known.  One  evening  his 
young  daughter,  the  Corinthian  Core,  was  struck  with 
the  idea  of  tracing  upon  the  wall  the  silhouette  of  her 
lover,  which  had  been  cast  there  by  the  light  of  the 
lamp  :  her  father  filled  out  the  profiles  with  clay,  and 
the  art  of  modelling  was  invented."*  Separating  the 
truth  from  the  fiction  in  these  fables,  we  find 
evidence  to  believe  that  the  art  of  sculpture  was 
first  developed  in  Oriental  Greece,  as  were  all 
the  arts  of  the  Greeks.  The  technical  processes  were 
handed  down  in  the  families  of  artisans,  and  were 
gradually  improved,  until  the  day  arrived  when  the 
modest  blacksmith,  who  had  forged  armour,  articles  of 
furniture,  and  the  like,  became  a  cunning  worker  in 
metal,  and  applied  to  statuary  art  the  technical  know- 
ledge and  skill  he  had  acquired.  It  is  then  that  we  find 
historical  names,  personages,  and  schools  with  dis- 
tinct characteristics.  Art  emerges  from  its  legendary 
stage,' and  by  the  aid  of  written  records  we  are  enabled 
to  trace  its  subsequent  history. 

*  Pliny,  N.ff.,  xxxv.,  151  ;  Athenagoras,  Legat.   tiro  Christianis,  14. 


io6 


C1IA1TKR    II. 

SF.fO  X!>     I'KKIOD. 

THE    PRIMITIVE    MASTERS,   FROM    THE    END    OK   THE  SEVENTH 
CENTURY    15. C.    TO   THE   SIXTIETH    OI.VMI'IAI)   (540  !•....).» 

Jj    I.    ORIENTAL    GREECE. 

SAM  I  AX  masters  excelled  principally  in  metal  working. 
They  were  toreuticians  (workers  in  repousse)  and  gold- 
smiths,  and  executed  works  then  in  demand  among  the 
princes  of  .Asia.  They  did  not  limit  themselves  to 
specialities  ;  their  activity  showed  itself  in  sculpture, 
and  in  all  the  other  arts  as  well.  Rhcecus,  head  of 
the  Samian  school,  who  lived  about  the  fortieth 
Olympiad  (620  ]'..(.'.),  made  a  statue  of  Night,  which 
was  preserved  in  Kphesus.  Theodorus,  his  son,  pos- 
sessed wonderful  skill,  to  which  his  statue  of  himself, 
holding  a  quadriga  covered  by  the  wings  of  a  fly, 
bears  witness.  To  the  latter  was  also  ascribed  a 
statue  of  Pythian  .Apollo,  executed  for  the  Samians, 
in  conjunction  with  his  brother  Teleclcs.  These 
three  artists  represent  the  Samian  school  at  about 
the  fortieth  Olympiad  (620  15.C.)  ;  the}-  were  united 
not  only  in  their  labours,  but  likewise  in  tradition, 

*   Cf.    Beule,    Histoirc  dc  f  Art  ,-;vr  a: ant  WricKs,    iSOS  ;    A.   S. 
Murray,  History,  etc.,  Vol.  I. 


SCULPTURE.  ID/ 

which  ascribes  to  Rhcecus  and  Thcodorus  the  invcn 
tion  of  casting  in  bronze,  i.e.,  the  art  of  running  the 
molten  bronze  around  a  core  of  plaster.*  Nothing 
can  give  us  a  better  conception  of  these  early 
schools  of  artists  where  the  processes  of  the  art  were 
transmitted  from  generation  to  generation. 

The  school  of  Chios  also  numbered  within  its  list 
torcuticians  and  sculptors  in  marble.  Glaucus,  with- 
out doubt  a  pupil  of  the  Samians,  was  the  maker  of  a 
crater  dedicated  at  Delphi  by  the  Lyclian  king 
Alyattes  (about  the  fortieth  Olympiad,  620  B.C.).  He 
seems  to  have  kept  up  the  tradition  of  working  in 
metals,  and  is  credited  with  the  invention  of  soldering 
Towards  the  close  of  the  seventh  century  B.C.,  however, 
the  Chian  school  of  sculptors  in  marble  had  its 
representative  in  Melas,  who  was  followed  by  his  son 
Micciadcs,  and  by  his  grandson  Archermus.  M. 
Homolle  discovered  at  Delos  a  marble  statue,  which 
gives  us  a  clear  idea  of  the  style  of  these  primitive 
masters.  It  seems  to  belong  to  the  first  part  of  the 
sixth  century  B.C.  It  is  of  a  female  figure,  perhaps  a 
Victory,  with  raised  wings,  wearing  a  crown  ;  she  is 
represented  in  a  very  naive  manner,  as  running.  An 
inscription  on  the  pedestal  indicates  it  as  the  work 
of  Micciadcs  and  his  son  Archermus. f  The  works  of 
Bupalus  and  Athenis,  sons  of  Archermus — about  the 
sixtieth  Olympiad  (540  B.C.),  according  to  Pliny — were 
of  such  artistic  merit  as  to  be  transported  to  Rome 

*  Ancient  bronze  statues  were  made  of  separate  pieces  inlaid,  as  it 
were,  and  riveted  in  place. 

t  Bull,  de  Corr.  hellcn.,  1879,  plates  vi.,  vil. 


108  GRFF.K    ARCII.FOLOGY. 

at  the  time  of  the  conquest  of  Greece.  At  Chios 
was  to  be  seen  a  statue  by  them  of  Artemis,  which 
appeared  sad  to  those  entering  the  temple,  but  of 
a  cheerful  expression  to  those  departing  from  it. 
At  Naxos,  at  about  the  same  time,  By/es,  son  of 
Kucrgus,  a  famous  sculptor,  executed  statues  for  his 
country,  and  invented  the  marble  tiling  used  in  cover- 
ing the  joints  in  the  roofing  of  temples. 

These  facts  are  enough  to  prove  that  the  first 
development  of  sculpture  was  effected  in  Oriental 
Greece  ;  knowledge  and  technical  skill  carried  thence 
into  European  Greece  gave  birth  to  those  important 
schools  which,  between  the  fortieth  and  fift'cth 
Olympiads  (620  H.C. — 580  U.C.),  conducted  the  art  of 
sculpture  to  a  comparatively  advanced  stage. 

£   2.    EUROPEAN    GREECE. 

Thcodorus  the  Samian  had  already  been  called  to 
Sparta,  there  to  erect  the  Skirts,  a  metallic  edifice  in 
the  form  of  a  tent.  The  yEginctan  Smilis  had  been 
trained  in  the  school  of  Samos,  and  had  made  for  the 
Samians  a  statue  of  Hera,  which  is  figured  on  archaic 
coins  of  the  island  of  Samos.  But  one  fact  above 
all  others  influenced  the  development  of  the  art  of 
sculpture  in  Peloponnesus  ;  this  was  the  arrival  of  the 
Cretan  masters,  Dipcenus  and  Scyllis,  at  Sicyon, 
where  they  established  themselves,  and  gave  art  a 
decided  impulse  (Olympiad  1,.,  580  i:.C.)  ;  their  works 
were  so  far  superior  to  those  of  native  artists,  that 
ancient  writers  ascribed  to  them  the  real  beginnings 
of  sculpture. 


SCULPTURE.  109 

The  Cretans  wrought  in  bronze,  in  wood,  and  in 
Parian  marble  ;  their  statues  were  in  demand  in  the 
whole  of  Dorian  Greece,  in  Ambracia,  in  Argos,  in 
Cleonae.  At  Sicyon  were  to  be  seen  statues  of  the 
gods,  works  from  their  studios.  Under  the  impulse 
given  by  them  art  spread  throughout  all  Pelopon- 
nesus ;  many  celebrated  pupils  are  assigned  to 
them,  Hegylus  and  Theocles,  the  Laconian  Dontas 
and  Dorycleidas,  Clearchus  of  Rhegium,  Tcctaeus  and 
Angelion,  who  wrought  for  the  Delians,  and  together 
executed  a  statue  of  Apollo  and  the  Three  Graces 
or  Charites,  figured  on  an  Attic  coin.* 

At  about  the  same  time  art  was  developing  at 
Sparta  with  great  energy.  By  reason  of  the  sojourn 
of  Theodorus  in  this  city,  the  art  of  working  in  bronze 
had  made  great  progress  there  at  the  opening  of  the 
sixth  century  B.C.,  and  the  traditions  of  Samos  had 
been  appropriated  by  skilled  masters  like  Syadras  and 
Chartas.  It  was  at  Sparta  that  the  disciples  of  Cretan 
masters  were  most  numerous ;  but  the  Laconian 
school  o\ved  much  to  the  Magnesian  Bathycles,  who 
established  himself  at  Sparta  after  the  year  544  B.C. 
(Ol.  LIX.  i),  bringing  with  him  a  group  of  Magnesian 
sculptors.  Bathycles  executed  for  the  rude  image  of 
Apollo  of  Amyclae  a  magnificent  throne  ornamented 
with  gold  and  ivory,  on  which  were  portrayed  in  rich 
reliefs  the  principal  Hellenic  myths. 

At  the  period  of  which  we  now  write,  Attic  sculp- 
ture had  hardly  come  into  being.  Lagging  far  behind 

*  Beule,  Monnaies  a"  At 'hems,  1858,  p.  364. 


I  10  r.Kl-.KK    AKCH.r.OI.OC.V. 

Pcloponnesian  art  in  point  of  time,  it  h;ul  not  emerged 
from  the  legendary  stage  until  between  the  fortieth 
and  the  fiftieth  Olympiads  (620  i:.c. — 5 (So  I ;.(_'.).  It 
was  soon  after  this  time  that  I'eisistratus  beautified 
Athens,  erected  the  Olympieum,  the  older  Parthenon, 
and  the  earlier  Propyhea.  This  artistic  movement 
to  which  Athens  owed  its  earlier  structures  could  not 
have  been  made  without  plastic  art  playing  some  part 
in  it.  It  is  at  this  date,  as  the  farthest  point,  that 
we  must  place  the  beginnings  of  the  earlier  Attic 
school,  the  activities  of  which  several  years  later  were 
to  be  felt  in  every  direction.  Before  the  sixtieth 
Olympiad  (540  i;.C.)  no  artists  are  to  be  found  in 
Attica,  except  those  of  a  legendary  character,  like 
Simmias,  who  made  a  statue  of  Dionysus  Morychus, 
which  at  the  time  of  the  vintage  was  smeared  with 
Ices.* 

One  fact  of  great  importance  contributed  to  hasten 
the  development  of  sculpture  at  about  the  sixtieth 
Olympiad  (540  is.c.)  ;  this  was  the  frequency  of  por- 
traits of  athletes.  Up  to  this  time  sculptors  had 
chiefly  represented  divinities,  whose  forms  had  been 
fixed  by  a  sort  of  hieratic  conventionality.  The 
earlier  statues  of  athletes,  victorious  in  Greek  religious 
festivals,  arc  marked  by  the  traditional  stiffness. 
Pausanias  describes  the  statue  of  the  pancratiast 
Arrachion,  victor  at  Phigalia  about  the  fifty-third 
Olympiad  (568  li.C.),  in  the  following  terms: — "The 


*  Enclrcus,  of  whom  we  shall  speak  later  on,  belongs  likewise  to  the 
last  years  of  the  first  period,  and  not  to  the  second  period. 


SCULPTURE.  I  I  I 

feet  are  barely  separated,  the  hands  fall  at  the  sides 
and  reach  as  far  as  the  thighs."*  The  first  victors 
at  the  Olympic  games  to  receive  statues  at  Olympia 
are  Praxidamas  of  /Egina  (fifty-ninth  Olympiad,  544 
B.C.),  and  Rhcxibius  the  Opuntian  (sixty-first  Olym- 
piad, 536  B.C.)  ;  these  wooden  statues  cannot  have 
been  likenesses,  but  were  symbolic  images  with  no 
attempt  at  portraiture.  Statues  of  gods  and  of 
athletes,  treated  in  a  conventional  style,  were  for 
a  long  time  the  only  attempts  at  representing  the 
human  figure.  After  the  sixtieth  Olympiad  (540  B.C.) 
the  figures  of  athletes  were  rapidly  multiplied,  and  art 
thereby  made  a  signal  gain.  Artists  learned  anatomy 
by  copying  the  vigorous  forms  before  their  eyes  ; 
they  aimed  to  render  accurately  the  structure  of  the 
body,  the  swell  of  the  muscle,  variety  of  attitude,  and 
thus  sought  to  realise  the  very  essence  of  art,  to  achieve 
the  perfect  imitation  of  nature  in  life. 

§    3.    MONUMENTS    PRESERVED. 

The  monuments  preserved  from  this  period  arc  few 
in  number,  and  it  is  difficult  to  assign  dates  to  them. 
They  permit  us  none  the  less,  however,  to  appreciate 
in  them  the  progress  that  was  being  made,  while  their 
defects,  by  reason  of  the  naivete  of  unsuccessful  effort, 
show  us  the  conditions  and  the  aims  of  the  primitive 
masters. 

The  Artemis  of  Delos,  which  seems  to  be  of  the 
seventh  century  B.C.,  belongs  also  to  the  class  of 

*  Pausanias,  vin.  40,  i. 


1 12  <;KI:FK  AK<  n.v.oi.or.v. 

£6ava.*  In  the  metopes  of  the  temple  of  Selinus  we 
are  in  the  last  years  (if  the  seventh,  if  not  at  the 
beginning  of  the  sixth,  century,  li.c.f  These  two  bas- 
rclicfs  of  calcareous  tufa  were  discovered  in  1823. 
One  of  them  represents  Heracles  carrying  off  the 
Ccrcopcs  ;  the  other  Perseus,  aided  by  Athena,  killing 
the  Gorgon.  They  well  characterise  the  style  of 
sculpture  at  the  beginning  of  the  period  already  dis- 
cussed; the  forms  are  heavy  and  massive,  the  muscles 
arc  exaggerated,  and  the  figures  in  general,  the  eyes 
of  which  are  large  and  obliquely  set,  betray  the  pro- 
cesses of  primitive  art.  The  sculptor  has  emphasised 
the  ugliness  of  expression  in  the  face  of  the  Gorgon, 
which  is  one  of  those  horrible  figures  in  favour  with 
the  earlier  artists.  Although  of  Greek  workman- 
ship, it  recalls  by  its  short  and  heavy  proportions 
Assyrian  bas-reliefs.  These  sculptures  were  painted 
in  accordance  with  an  old  usage,  which  seems  to  have 
continued  throughout  the  whole  archaic  period. 

Some  interesting  bas-reliefs,  now  in  the  museum  of 
Sparta,  which  were  found  in  the  outskirts  of  the  town, 
arc  treated  in  an  analogous  way.  Two  of  these  reliefs 
fill  up  the  principal  faces  of  a  rectangular  monument ; 
one  of  them  represents  Orestes  meeting  his  sister 
Electra,  the  other  the  murder  of  Clytcmncstra  by 
her  son.  The  figures  arc  short  and  heavily  built  ; 
the  movements  indicated  arc  awkward  ;  the  attitude 
of  Orestes  is  almost  identical  in  the  two  scenes.  We 

*  Homolle,  Bull,  dc  Corr.  hcllcn.,  1879,  plates  n->  '"• 
t  Benndorf,  Die  Mctopm  ron  Sdinunt,    1873.     The  date  of  these 
sculptures  may  be  set  at  about  the  fiftieth  Olympiad  (580  B.C.). 


SCULPTURE.  113 

feel  that  the  sculptor's  chisel  lacked  the  flexibility  of 


FlG.    29. — PERSEUS   SLAYING   THE   GORGON". 
(Metope  from  Selinus.) 

action  necessary  to  secure  variety  in  the  movements 


114  r.KKF.K    ARCH.KOLOGY. 

of  liis  figures.  Several  other  bas-reliefs  in  the  same 
museum,  found  at  Chrysapha,  represent  two  persons, 
a  man  and  a  woman,  seated  upon  richly  ornamented 
chairs  :  they  are  receiving  the  offerings  of  a  cock  and 
a  flower  which  arc  brought  to  them  by  two  very  small 
figures.  The  subject  represented  has  been  a  matter 
of  controversy  :"x"  in  the  larger  figures  have  been  seen 
Asclepius  and  Ilygieia,  or,  as  is  more  probable,  deified 
ancestors,  conceived  as  divinities  of  the  lower  world, 
who  arc  receiving  offerings  from  their  survivors. 
Whatever  may  be  the  subject,  these  old  Laconian 
sculptures  are  of  a  very  peculiar  style  ;  the  rigid  out- 
lines, which  arc  stiff  and  accented,  indicate  a  very 
primitive  technique,  which  treated  marble  as  if  it  were 
wood. 

It  would  be  interesting  were  we  able  to  ascribe  to 
fixed  dates  and  definite  schools  some  of  these  works. 
Perhaps  we  are  to  assign  to  the  school  of  Dipcjenus 
and  Scyllis  some  fragments  discovered  at  Actium,  now 
in  the  Louvre.  We  should  thus  have  evidence  of  the 
progress  achieved  under  these  masters.  Though  the 
foregoing  is  only  a  conjecture,  these  statues  have  their 
definite  place  in  a  scries  of  interesting  monuments 
that  indicate  the  progress  made  in  sculpture  about 
the  middle  of  the  sixth  century  15. C.  in  the  study  of 
the  human  form,  as  found  in  the  bodies  of  athletes. 
\Ve  refer  to  archaic  statues  representing  Apollo. 
The  most  ancient  of  these  appears  to  be  the  Apollo 

*  Von  Sallet,  Zeitschrift  fur  Numismatik,  1882,  p.  171  ;  Mitthcil. 
des  aeutsch.  Imt.  zu  Athcn,  1877,  p.  459,  and  1882,  p.  163.  Cf.  also 
Percy  Gardner,  Fortnightly  Kevic-i',  June,  1885. 


SCULPTURE. 


of  Thcra,  the  aspect  of  which 
accords  in  every  particular 
with  the  description  given  by 
Pausanias  of  the  statue  of  the 
athlete  Arrachion.  Here  is 
quite  the  same  attitude  :  the 
arms  fitting  close  to  the  body, 
the  legs  barely  separated,  the 
detail  of  the  muscles  but 
feebly  indicated,  and  on  the 
face  a  stupid  smiling  expres- 
sion. It  is  safe  to  put  the 
date  of  this  statue  at  about 
560  B.C.  The  Apollo  of  Orcho- 
menus  differs  but  slightly 
from  that  of  Thera.  The 
attitude  is  the  same,  but  we 
here  see  the  beginning  of  an 
attempt  to  indicate  more 
energetically  the  muscular 
development  of  the  chest. 
Next  to  this  come  the 
statues  in  the  Louvre,  and 
mark  a  new  stage  of  pro- 
gress.* About  this  time  the 
multiplication  of  portraits  of 

Statues  of  the  same  type  have 
lately  been  discovered  in.  the  excava- 
tions on  the  site  of  the  temple  of 
Apollo  Ptoiis  at  Akraiphia  in  Boeotia 
by  the  French  School  of  Athens. 

I  2 


FIG.     o. 

APOLLO    OF   TENEA. 
(Munich. 


I  1 6  CRF.KK    ARCH.KOLOCV. 

athletes  led  Greek  sculptors  to  study  anatomy  more 
closeU',  and  the  results  of  these  studies  appear  in  the 
statue  of  Apollo  of  Tenea,  now  in  Munich.  A  greater 
care  in  anatomical  detail,  more  slender  proportions, 
a  certain  hollowing  out  between  the  body  and  the 
arm,  indicate  a  more  advanced  stage  in  art  ;  but  the 
attitude  is  still  rigid,  the  face  has  that  perpetually 
simpering  expression  of  archaic  statues,  with  no  indi- 
vidual character.  Progress  is  shown  principally  in  the 
forms  of  the  body  ;  the  intelligent  treatment  of  the 
face  required  a  mastery  of  art  not  attained  by  these 
early  artists. 

These  works  belong  to  the  Dorian  schools.  To 
the  Ionian,  however,  are  to  be  assigned  the  ten 
statues  which  decorated  the  avenue  of  Branchidae  at 
Didymi,  and  are  now,  in  part,  in  the  Lycian  room  of 
the  British  Museum.  The  inscriptions  upon  them 
fix  their  date  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  sixtieth 
Olympiad  (540  B.C.) — very  valuable  testimony  when 
we  consider  the  uncertainty  which  too  often  prevails 
in  regard  to  the  precise  date  of  Greek  monuments. 
The  statues,  at  first  sight,  suggest  the  Assyrian  style. 
They  represent  figures  seated  in  chairs  with  high 
backs  ;  the  legs  are  close  together,  the  hands  rest 
upon  the  knees.  Such  is  the  uniformity  of  treatment, 
that  these  figures  seem  to  have  been  executed  after  a 
rule  or  canon,  where  no  scope  was  left  for  the  artist's 
individuality. 

At  first  glance,  these  statues  from  Branchido,'  seem 
to  have  nothing  Greek  about  them.  This  is  because 
the  Greeks  dwelling  upon  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor  were 


SCULPTURE. 


IT/ 


in  direct  communication  with  the  people  of  Phrygia 
and  of  Lydia,  who  served  as  intermediaries  between 
Assyria  and  the  Hellenes  of  Asia.  All  the  monu- 
ments of  art  of  this  period,  few  though  they  are,  found 
in  Asiatic  Greece,  show  a  very  pronounced  Oriental 
influence.  The  museum  of  the  Louvre  possesses  a 


FlG.    31. — STATUES    FROM    THE    SACRED    WAY    OF    BRANCIIIIVK. 
(British  Museum.) 

portion  of  a  peculiar  frieze  from  the  old  Doric  temple 
at  Assos,  in  the  Troad.  It  exhibits  a  singular  mixture 
of  Greek  subjects,  with  decorative  motives  borrowed 
from  the  East.  Side  by  side  with  the  contest  between 
Heracles  and  the  Triton  we  find  zones  of  fighting 
animals,  common  in  Assyrian  art.*  Again,  to  this 
period  belongs  the  bas-relief  in  the  Louvre,  found 

*   Other  iragments  of  the  frieze  were  recovered  in  the  excavations 
recently  conducted  by  the  Archrcological  Institute  of  America. 


US 


C.RKKK    ARCH.F.OI.Or.Y. 


in  the  island  of  Samothracc,  representing  Agamemnon 
seated  upon  a  royal  throne,  accompanied  by  Kpeius 
and  the  herald  Tnlthybius.  While  the  figures  are  in 
profile,  the  eyes  arc  drawn  as  if  facing  the  spectator, 
and  the  hair  is  arranged  in  symmetrical  curls.  The 
figures  are  designated  by  inscriptions,  the  characters 


\ 


FlG.   32. — BAS-RELIEF    FROM    SAMOTHRACE. 


in   which   indicate  a  date  near   the  sixtieth  Olympiad 
(540  B.C.). 

This  rapid  survey  of  existing  monuments  reveals 
anew  the  antagonism  between  the  Dorian  and  Ionian 
genius,  which  was  to  become  yet  more  distinct.  On 
the  one  hand  we  sec  the  Dorian  genius,  less  directly 
subject,  it  seems,  to  the  influences  of  the  Orient, 


SCULPTURE.  119 

instinct  with  vigour  and  force;  on  the  other,  the  Ionian 
genius,  instructed  in  the  school  of  Asia.  The  art 
of  this  period  has,  however,  many  features  that  arc 
common  to  the  two  branches.  It  was,  above  all,  re- 
ligious, and  its  creations  were  such  as  were  demanded 
by  the  requirements  of  worship  and  religious  cultus  ; 
but  even  this  condition  was  destined  to  be  one 
cause  of  its  gradual  growth  towards  perfection.  Re- 
ligion was  not  a  restraining  influence  in  art  ;  it  did 
not  impose  upon  it,  as  some  have  been  tempted  to 
believe,  inflexible  forms.  On  the  contrary,  the  pro- 
gress of  religious  conceptions  cannot  be  separated 
from  that  of  the  conception  of  beauty  ;  for  the  more 
beautiful  a  work  of  art  became,  the  more  welcome 
was  it  to  the  divinity.  If  we  observe,  in  this  primitive 
period,  forms  with  slight  variations  often  repeated,  we 
must  admit  that  this  is  the  work  of  art  alone,  in  the 
midst  of  the  limitations  under  which  it  was  developed. 
Followed  principally  in  families  of  artists,  in  restricted 
schools,  it  comprised  at  first  hardly  more  than  a 
knowledge  of  technical  processes  :  the  master  trans- 
mitted this  knowledge  to  his  pupil,  who  strove  to 
extend  it,  until,  finally,  art  grew  bolder,  and  attempted 
the  study  of  nature,  which  is  the  source  of  all  real  pro- 
gress. After  the  period  of  the  primitive  artists,  we  enter 
upon  that  of  archaic  sculpture,  which  in  turn  touches 
upon  the  period  of  perfection.  Greek  art  has  found 
its  path,  and  it  strengthens  itself  by  a  vigorous  and 
scientific  study  of  the  laws  of  progress  in  sculpture. 


120 


CIIAPTKR      III. 

THIRD      PKRIOI). 

ARCHAIC  SCULPTURE  :  FROM  THK  SIXTIETH  TO  THK  EIGHTIETH 
OLYMPIAD  (5to   H.C.— 460  DA.). 


£   I.    THK    DORIAN    SCHOOLS    IN    PELOPONNESUS. 

LESS  than  a  century  separates  the  period  of  primit've 
art  from  that  in  which  sculpture  attained  its  perfec- 
tion. This  is  the  time  of  those  artists  \vho,  without 
being  entirely  released  from  the  influence  of  archaic 
traditions,  were  preparing  for  the  age  of  Phcidias  and 
Polycleitus.  The  influence  of  Dipcenus  and  Scyllis 
caused  the  development  in  Peloponnesus  of  the  various 
schools  of  Sparta,  Sicyon,  Argos,  and  Corinth,  at  the 
same  time  that  the  schools  of/Eginaand  of  Athens 
were  affording  evidence  of  energetic  activity. 

The  most  brilliant  representative  of  the  Spartan 
school,  towards  the  close  of  the  sixth  century  H.C.,  is 
Gitiadcs  (Olympiad  LXV. — LXXI.,  520  B.C.—  496  B.C.), 
who  constructed  for  Athena  a  shrine  adorned  with 
reliefs  in  bronze.  At  the  same  time  architect  and 
sculptor,  lie  regulated  the  use  of  the  orders  in  the 
edifice,  and  planned  the  whole  of  the  sculptural  decora- 
tion of  the  temple,  the  subjects  of  which  arc  drawn  from 
Dorian  myths.  Elis,  which  was  not  far  from  Laconia, 


SCULPTURE. 


121 


FlG.    33. — niDYM^EAN    APOLLO. 

(On  a  coin  of  Miletus,  when  a  free  city.) 


became  the  museum  of  all  Greece,  and  was  enriched 
by  sculptures  which  accumulated  in  the  Altis,  the 
sacred  grove  of  Olympia.  Only  one  Elean  artist, 
however,  is  known  in 
the  sixth  century  B.C. ; 
he  was  Gallon,  author 
of  a  group  of  thirty- 
seven  figures  in  bronze, 
executed  for  the  Mes- 
senians. 

Greek     writers     do 

not  mention  the  name  of  a  single  immediate  pupil  of 
Dipcenus  and  Scyllis  in  Sicyon,  but  we  can  easily  see 
in  this  city  the  perpetuation  of  Cretan  traditions  ; 

Sicyon  remained  for  a  long 
time  a  veritable  laboratory 
for  the  arts  of  metal-work- 
ing.* About  the  sixty- 
fourth  Olympiad  (524  B.C.) 
another  Cretan,  Aristocles 
of  Cydonia,  established  him- 
self here,  and  his  descend- 
ants worked  at  their  art 
through  the  whole  of  the 
period  now  under  discussion. 
Clecetas,  his  son,  invented 
for  Olympia  a  system  of 

barriers  for  the  race-course,  and  executed  for  the 
Acropolis  at  Athens  a  statue  of  a  warrior,  coated 


FIG.  34. 
IMPERIAL  COIN  OF  MILETUS 


Pliny,  N.H.  xxxvi.  9. 


122  C.RKEK    ARCH.KOLOGY. 

with  silver.  Aristocles,  son  of  Clcu-tas,  formed  a 
school,  and  had  many  pupils,  among  whom  were 
Synnoon  of /Egina  and  Pantias  of  Chios. 

But  the  most  famous  of  the  masters  in  -Sicyon  was 
Canachus,  brother  of  the  second  Aristocles.  Among 
his  works  arc  mentioned  a  seated  Aphrodite,  of  gold 
and  ivory  ;  one  of  the  Muses  in  a  group  made  by  him 
in  company  with  Ageladas  and  Aristocles  ;  above 
all,  two  statues,  one  of  Apollo  of  Didymi  near 
Miletus,  the  other  of  Ismcnian  Apollo,  at  Thebes, 
resembling  each  other  exactly,  since  these  early 
masters  often  repeated  themselves.  The  Apollo  of 
Didymi,  executed  between  494  li.C.  and  479  r,.c.,  was 
a  standing  figure,  holding  a  bow  in  the  left  hand  and 
a  stag  in  the  right.  The  god  is  thus  represented  on 
many  coins  of  Miletus,  where,  in  spite  of  dimensions 
very  much  reduced,  we  may  easily  recognise  an  imi- 
tation of  the  Apollo  of  Canachus.  \Ve  find  with 
more  certainty  the  principal  features  of  the  statue 
preserved  in  bronze  statues  now  in  London  and  in 
Paris  ;  the  two  most  important  arc  the  Payne-Knight 
bronze  in  the  British  Museum,  and  the  Apollo 
Piombino  in  the  Museum  of  the  Louvre.  The  former 
statue  represents  the  god  with  the  attributes  which 
Canachus  had  given  him  ;  his  hair  is  in  curls  across 
his  forehead,  and  long  locks  fall  down  his  shoulders. 
The  bronze  in  the  Louvre,  however,  can  give  us  a 
still  better  conception  of  this  work  of  the  Sicyonian 
master.  It  is  a  painstaking  copy  of  the  Didyma:an 
Apollo,  executed  in  the  last  years  of  the  sixth  century 
B.C.  The  forms  arc  vigorous  and  carefully  studied  ; 


SCULPTURE.  123 

one  of  the  legs,  stepping  slightly  forward,  gives  the 
statue  a  firm  equilibrium  ;  the  hair  is  arranged  in 
the  archaic  manner,  and  forms  a  heavy  mass  on  the 
back  of  the  neck  ;  the  eyes  were  of  silver,  the  lips  and 
the  nipples  of  the  breast  plated  with  red  copper.  The 
characteristics  of  this  statue  confirm  the  criticism  of 
the  ancients  on  the  style  of  Canachus,  which  still  re- 
tained much  hardness  and  stiffness  of  treatment.  By 
this  statue  we  may  judge  of  the  state  of  plastic  art  at 
the  close  of  the  sixth  and  the  beginning  of  the  fifth 
century  B.C.,  at  an  age  when  this  Sicyonian  artist  bril- 
liantly represented  one  of  the  great  schools  of  sculp- 
ture in  European  Greece. 

At  Argos,  which  was  near  Sicyon,  flourished  a 
school  which,  about  the  seventieth  Olympiad  (500  B.C.), 
included  several  famous  masters,  among  whom  were 
Eutelidas  and  Chrysothemis,  workers  in  metal;  they 
had  been  preceded  by  a  generation  of  sculptors,  as  is 
proved  by  the  following  inscription,  cut  on  one  of  their 
works  at  Olympia  : — "Eutelidas  and  Chrysothemis, 
Argives,  made  these  statues  :  they  received  their  art 
from  their  predecessors."  But  the  great  name  of  the 
Argive  school  is  that  of  Ageladas,  the  period  of 
whose  activity  extended  from  515  B.C.  to  455  B.C. 
His  work  is  known  only  through  the  ancient  writers, 
but  this  testimony  shows  that  he  successfully  under- 
took most  complicated  and  difficult  subjects  ;  such 
was  the  statue  of  Cleosthenes  of  Epidamnus,  whom  he 
represented  with  his  charioteer  and  horses.  He  also 
executed  a  group  of  captives  and  of  horses,  dedicated 
at  Delphi  by  the  people  of  Tarentum.  Statues  of 


\2\ 


GREI:K  ARCILEOLO<;Y. 


divinities  from  his 
hand  arc  mentioned, 
such  as  that  of 
Heracles  Alcxicacos 
("avcrtcr  of  evil"), 
set  up  in  the  clcmc  of 
Mclitc  in  Athens,  and 
a  statue  of  Zeus,  for 
the  Mcsscnians.  To 
Ageladas  must  there- 
fore be  assigned  an 
important  place  in 
the  history  of  Greek- 
art,  and  to  this  dis- 
tinction should  be 
joined  another  not  to 
be  forgotten  :  this 
Arrive  sculptor  was 
the  teacher  of  Myron, 
of  Polyclcitus,  and  of 
Phcidias.  By  his  in- 
struction he  prepared 
the  way  for  the  period 
of  perfection,  to  which 
he  nearly  attained 
himself.  Though  no 
work  of  Ageladas  has 
survived,  we  have 
reason  to  believe  that 
his  style  greatly  re- 
sembled that  of  the 


Fir,.  35. — PAYNE-KNIGHT  BRONZE.       (British  Museum.) 


FlG.  36. — HERACLES   STRETCHING   HIS   BOW. 
(Carapanos  collection.) 


126  (iRKKK    AKCII.F.OLOC.Y. 

Sicyonian  masters.  Like  them,  he  wrought  in  bronze, 
and,  as  is  well  known,  through  this  material  brought 
out  precisely  those  qualities  that  are  to  be  found  in 
the  archaic  masters.  A  bronze  statue  must  have 
perfect  equilibrium,  and  other  conditions  of  stability 
which  demand  most  minute  study.  It  requires, 
further,  great  purity  in  its  lines,  minute  and  careful 
work  in  accessories,  such  as  the  hair,  beard,  etc.  It  is 
probable  that  the  masters  of  Argos  and  Sicyon  had 
carried  technical  skill  in  modelling  to  its  highest 
pitch,  and  that  everything  was  now  ready  for  the 
opening  of  a  great  age  in  the  history  of  art. 

But  little  is  known  of  the  Corinthian  school  of 
sculpture,  to  which  belonged  three  artists,  authors  of 
a  group  dedicated  at  Delphi  by  the  Phocians,* 
Diyllus,  Amycla:us,  and  Chionis,  who  arc  known  only 
from  the  mention  made  of  them  by  Pausanias.  No 
marble  has  been  found  at  Corinth  that  can  give  us 
certain  knowledge  of  the  methods  and  traditions  of 
this  school. f  We  can  hardly  put  confidence  in  vague 
indications  pointing  to  Corinth  as  the  source  of  a 
beautiful  bas-relief  belonging  to  the  Carapanos  col- 
lection. A  naked  Heracles,  his  lion's  skin  thrown 
aside,  is  discharging  an  arrow  ;  all  the  muscles  of  his 
vigorous  body  are  contracted  by  the  effort,  and  his  legs 
are  stiffened  by  the  movement  which  throws  his  body 

*  Pausanias,  x.  13,  7. 

t  A  round  altar  found  at  Corinth,  now  in  England,  representing 
the  reconciliation  of  Heracles  with  the  divinities  of  Delphi,  is  nothing 
more  than  a  late  imitation  of  the  archaic  style.  Or.  these  imitations, 
which  are  archaistic  rather  than  genuinely  archaic,  see  below,  p.  144. 


SCULPTURE.  127 

forward.  No  name  is  affixed  to  this  relief;  but  the 
general  features  of  its  style  place  it  at  the  period  at 
which  sculptors  copied  nature,  without  being  able  to 
disengage  themselves  from  servile  imitation.  (Fig.  36.) 
We  will  not  pass  to  the  next  school  without  speci- 
fying an  interesting  monument  of  Bceotian  sculpture. 
This  is  a  group  in  porous  stone  found  at  Tanagra. 
The  monument  was  erected  upon  the  tomb  of  two 
friends,  Dermys  and  Citylus,  by  a  person  named 
Amphalces  ;  the  two  friends  are  represented  as 
embracing,  each  with  his  arm  about  the  neck  of 
his  companion.*  The  proportions  of  the  figures  arc 
slender;  an  effect  of  very  marked  elegance  is  produced, 
together  with  that  of  striking  inexperience.  The 
Bceotian  artist  was  less  advanced  in  the  science  of 
anatomy  than  were  his  brothers  of  Peloponnesus. 


§  2.  THE    /EGINETAN    SCHOOL. 


The  school  of  /Egina  was  connected  with  the 
Dorian  schools  ;  this  is  apparent  from  the  marbles 
preserved,  and  the  history  of  the  ^Eginetan  school 
clearly  shows  its  Dorian  origin.  As  early  as  between 
55O  B.C.  and  536  B.C.,  Smilis,  the  founder  of  the 
^Eginetan  school,  visited  Elis  and  executed  works  for 
Olympia.  About  the  seventieth  Olympiad  (500  B.C.), 
Gallon  of  ./Egina,  a  pupil  of  Dorian  artists,  exercised 
his  art  in  Sparta  and  in  Corinth,  and  his  statues  of 
gods  were  marked  by  the  harshness  characteristic  of 

*  A.  Dumont,  Gazette  archeologiqzte,  1878. 


128  GREEK    ARCILEOLOGY. 

Dorian  works  of  art.  Still  other  names  arc  mentioned 
by  ancient  writers,  which  bear  witness  to  the  activity 
displayed  in  the  studios  of  /Kgina : — Glaucias, 
Anaxagoras,  Callitelcs,  Simon,  Synnoon  and 
Ptolichus,  Scrambus,  Thcopropus,  all  of  them  skilful  in 
modelling  the  figures  of  athletes  and  of  horses  at  the 
order  of  Olympian  victors,  such  as  Gelon  of  Syracuse, 
who  desired  to  be  represented  with  their  quadriga.-. 
The  last  member  of  the  /Kginctan  school,  which 
did  not  survive  the  conquest  of  the  island  by  the 
Athenians,  seems  to  have  been  Onatas,  who  flourished 
after  the  Persian  wars.  Among  the  numerous  statues 
of  divinities  ascribed  to  this  sculptor,  mention  is  made 
of  an  Apollo  of  Pcrgamum  figured  on  copper  coins  of 
the  time  of  Marcus  Aurclius. 

It  is  yEgina  herself  that  furnishes  the  most  im- 
portant groups  of  monuments  for  this  whole  period. 
The  sculptures  which  adorned  the  pediments  of  the 
temple  of  Athena  in  /Egina,  discovered  in  1811  by 
Danish,  German,  and  English  travellers,  arc  the  most 
beautiful  specimens  of  Greek  art  in  the  archaic  age 
now  in  existence.*  The  subjects  arc  taken  from  the 


*  Tlie.se  marbles,  obtained  in  1812  by  Prince  Louis  of  Bavaria  ami 
restored  by  Thonvaldsen,  are  in  the  Glyptothek  of  Munich.  They  have 
often  been  published,  notably  by  the  French  in  L?  Expedition  scimtifiqne 
Morse,  1831 — 1838.  For  bibliography  consult  Ikunn,  Bcschreibung 
det  Glyptothek,  Third  Edition,  1874.  K.  Lange  has  lately  written 
a  work  on  the  important  question  as  to  the  arrangement  of  the 
figures  or  the  composition  of  the  two  pediments  (K.  Lange,  Die 
Composition  der  ALgineten,  1878).  On  studying  the  monuments  with 
extreme  care,  as  had  already  been  done  by  II.  Prachov  (Annali 
diir  Insl,  1873),  Lange  shows  that  the  composition  of  the  two 


SCULPTURE. 


129 


Homeric  poems,  and  are  connected  with  the  history 
of  the  heroes  of  ^Egina.     On   the  eastern  pediment. 


FlG.    37. — HERACLES. 

(From  the  Eastern  /Egina  pediment.) 


pediments  is  rigorously  symmetrical.  Each  scene  had  fourteen  figures 
instead  of  eleven,  as  had  been  previously  believed.  In  the  centre, 
Athena,  with  the  fallen  warrior.  On  either  side — (i)  a  figure  bend- 
ing towards  the  prostrate  body ;  (2)  two  warriors,  armed  with  spears, 
standing  erect ;  (3)  two  warriors  kneeling  and  fighting,  one  with 
a  spear,  the  other  with  a  bow  ;  (4)  finally,  in  the  corner,  a  wounded 
man  attempting  to  draw  an  arrow  from  his  pierced  breast. 

J 


IJO  (iRKKK    AK(  H.l.oI.oi.Y. 

of  which  five  figures  and  some  fragments  arc  prc- 
scrvcd,  the  scene  is  that  of  the  episode  of  tlie 
conflict  between  Heracles  and  Tclamon,  son  of 
/Eacus,  kin*;-  of  the  island,  on  the  one  hand,  and 
Laomedon  on  the  other.  At  the  feet  of  Athena, 
who  occupies  the  centre  of  the  pediment,  lies  the 
body  of  Occlcs,  one  of  the  companions  of  Heracles  ; 
Greeks  and  Trojans  are  contending  over  the  fallen 
warrior.  The  small  number  of  figures  preserved 
docs  not  permit  the  restoration  of  this  first  scene 
with  entire  certainty  ;  but  we  recognise  without 
difficulty  in  one  of  the  forms  Heracles  kneeling  and 
drawing  his  bow,  wearing  a  helmet  made  like  a  lie  n's 
head,  while  his  bod}' is  protected  by  a  leathern  cuirass. 
The  second  pediment,  which  in  great  measure  can  be 
restored,  presents  a  scene  from  the  ///^/(xvil.  715^.), 
translated  into  marble.  Patroclus  has  just  been 
vanquished  ;  two  heroes  dear  to  the  /Eginctans,  Ajax, 
son  of  Tclamon,  and  Teucer,  arc  defending  his  body 
against  the  Trojans.  The  figures  are  subject  to  the 
rigid  laws  of  symmetry,  while  at  the  same  time 
skilful  composition  has  utilised  the  triangular  space 
occupied  by  the  tympanum  of  the  pediment.  Athena, 
standing  erect  and  with  a  spear,  presides  over  the 
combat ;  on  the  one  side  are  Trojans,  on  the  other 
Greeks,  while  in  the  front  Ajax  is  defending  his 
comrade,  who  has  fallen  at  the  feet  of  the  goddess. 
Midway  towards  the  corners,  under  the  projecting 
coping  of  the  pediment,  the  figures  are  kneeling;  at 
the  corners  the  wounded,  in  a  lying  posture,  complete 
the  picture,  the  lines  of  which  conform  to  an  absolute 


SCULPTURE.  131 

parallelism.  Certain  parts  of  the  statues  were  coloured, 
and  some  of  the  accessories  were  executed  in  bronze. 
The  art  of  these  statues,  though  so  skilful  and 
so  accurate  from  an  anatomical  point  of  view,  is 
still  under  archaic  influences  ;  these  appear  principally 
in  the  modelling  of  the  heads  and  of  the  hands  and 
feet,  and  in  the  uniformity  of  types  :  the  faces  are 
expressionless,  and  are  encircled  by  carefully  curled 
hair  ;  the  lips  are  narrow  and  pursed  up,  and  have  the 
stupid  simper  of  figures  of  the  ancient  style,  while  the 
hands  and  feet  are  treated  awkwardly.  But  the 
attitudes  and  many  minor  details  indicate  a  scrupu- 
lous observation  of  nature  ;  in  the  vigorous  forms  we 
discover  a  treatment  of  muscles  that  is  restrained,  but 
at  the  same  time  of  almost  geometrical  precision. 
The  /Eginetan  artists  possessed  two  essential  qualifi- 
cations— knowledge  of  the  laws  of  both  statics  and 
anatomy.  The  ancients  recognised  their  style  by 
certain  delicate  characteristic  features ;  we  must, 
however,  associate  the  school  closely  with  the 
Dorian  tradition.  A  genuine  Dorian  instinct  reveals 
itself  in  the  taste  for  the  exact  representation  of 
nature,  and  in  the  vigorous  execution  which  gives  us 
firmly  knit  forms  and  bestows  upon  the  /Eginetan 
marbles  an  austere  beauty. 

§  3-   THE    ATTIC    SCHOOL. 

At  Athens  the  period  of  the  rule  of  Peisistratus 

coincides   with  that   of  an   early  development  in   art 

that  seems  to  have  been  fruitful.     The  great  works  of 

art  executed  at  the  order  of  Peisistratus  contributed 

J  2 


FIG.  38.— SEATKD  nr.UKic:  ATIIKNA.     (Athens.) 


SCULPTURE. 


to  the  rapid   progress  of  sculpture.      At    the   begin- 
ning of  this  period — about  the  fifty-seventh  Olympiad 


\ 


I'iG.    39. — HEAL)    OV   AN    ATHLETE. 

(Rampin  Collection.) 

(552  B.C.) — we  find  the  name  of  Endoeus,  said  to  have 
been  a  pupil  of  the  legendary  Daedalus.*      Endoeus 

*  An  inscription  bearing  the  name  of  Endoeus  seems  to  date  as  far 
back  as  the  sixtieth  Olympiad  (540  B.C.). — Corpus  Insc.  Attic.,  I.  477. 


I  34  CKKKK    AIU'H.KOI.nr.Y. 

was  the  author  of  a  seated  figure  of  Athena,  dedi- 
cated by  Callias  in  the  Acropolis  of  Athens.  He 
made  a  copy  of  this  statue  for  the  city  of  Erythra:. 
\Yc  ma)-  recognise,  if  not  the  original,  at  least  an  imita- 
tion of  this  Athena  in  an  Athenian  marble  now  pre- 
served on  the  Acropolis.*  (Fig.  38.)  As  in  the  statues 
at  Branch  id  re,  the  goddess  is  here  seated  in  an  attitude 
at  once  rigid  and  hieratic.  Upon  the  a_\gis  that  covers 
her  breast  fall  the  locks  of  her  long  hair  symmetrically 
parted.  The  artist  endeavoured,  above  all,  carefully 
to  reproduce  with  great  minuteness  the  fine  folds  of 
the  tunic,  undulating  along  the  full  length  of  her  form. 
There  is  here  an  evident  imitation  of  ancient  wooden 
statues,  and  of  the  folds  of  drapery  that  covered  them. 
With  Gorgias,  Aristion,  Callonidcs,  and  Epistcmon, 
Enddjus  represents  the  first  Attic  school,  contem- 
porary with  Peisistratus,  which  we  are  better  able  to 
study  by  reason  of  the  monuments  preserved.  Of 
these  we  will  mention  the  more  important. 

First  among  these  is  the  head  of  an  athlete, f 
which  shows  the  progress  made  from  the  Apollo  of 
Orchomcnus  and  from  that  of  Tcnca.  (Fig.  39.)  The 
workmanship  is  very  fine.  The  athlete,  with  hair  and 
beard  tightly  curled,  is  crowned  with  an  oak  chaplet, 
and,  in  spite  of  awkward  execution,  a  successful  attempt 
at  elegance  is  manifest.  Individuality,  still  only  feebly 
indicated  in  this  work,  is  more  clearly  marked  in  two 

*  We  know  of  a  repetition  of  this  statue  of  a  date  undoubtedly 
more  recent. 

t  A.  Dumont,  Monuments  grccs  dc  rAssociat.  des  Etudes  grecqucs, 
1878.  (Collection  Rampin. ) 


SCULPT  URK.  135 

other  heads,  also  from  Athens.  The  former  is  that  of 
an  athlete  with  an  expression  full  of  energy,  whose 
ears  are  misshapen  from  blows  received  in  boxing.* 
The  artist  has  plainly  tried  to  render  the  personality 
of  his  model,  and  has  succeeded  in  giving  his  face  the 


Fir..  40. — DISCOBOLUS. 
(Museum  of  Athens. ) 

character  of  a  portrait.  Elegance  is  more  evident  in 
this  work  than  in  another  head  in  bas-relief  repre- 
senting a  discobolus,  which  seems  to  have  been  part  of 
a  stele,  bearing  the  name  of  Xenophantus.  (Fig.  40. )t 
The  features  are  fine,  somewhat  elongated,  and  were 

*  O.  Rayet,  Monuments grecs,  etc.,  1877- 
t  O.  Rayet,  ibid. 


FlG.  41.— STELE    OF    ARISTION. 

(Found  at  Velanidcza.      Museum  of 
Athens.) 


AKCH.V.OI.Or.Y. 


copied  from  life.  It  is  the 
true  Athenian  type,  with 
all  its  characteristics.  The 
hair  is  twisted  and  tied 
together  into  a  mass  by 
a  band :  a  kind  of  semi- 
Oriental  coiffure  which  the 
Greeks  abandoned  after 
the  Persian  wars.  The  eyes 
still  retain  that  oblique- 
ness given  them  by  the 
archaic  sculptors  ;  the  total 
effect,  though  somewhat 
strange,  is  not  without  its 
charm.  We  arc  probably 
to  assign  to  the  same 
period  a  statue  now  in 
Athens,  which  represents  a 
bearded  figure  (perhaps 
Hermes)  bearing  a  young 
bullock  on  his  shoulders. 

Among  the  first  works 
of  the  Attic  school  arc  to 
be  placed  many  stchc,  upon 
which,  according  to  an  an- 
cient usage,  were  portrayed 
likenesses  of  the  dead. 
Such  is  the  stele  found  at 
Vclanidezain  Attica,  known 
by  the  incorrect  name  of 
the  "Soldier  of  Marathon." 


SCULPTURE. 


137 


The  inscription  cut  below  the  relief  indicates  that  the 
monument  is  that  of  a  person  named  Aristion  ;  *  the 
author  is  the  sculptor  Aristoclcs,  perhaps  son  of 
Aristocles  the  Cydonian,  who  figures  among  the 
masters  of  the  school  of  Sicyon.  The  bas-relief, 


FlG.    42.  —  A.    THE   TYRANNICIDES    ON    AN    ATHENIAN    COIN. 
B.    THE    SAME,    ENLARGED. 

upon  which  traces  ot  colouring  are  still  visible, 
represents  a  Greek  warrior  in  full  armour  ;  his  hair 
and  beard,  made  into  tight  curls,  were  brownish  ;  his 
cuirass  was  dark  blue,  and  the  ground  of  the  stele  red. 
By  means  of  the  inscription,  the  letters  of  which  seem  to 


'ApiffTiovos. 


138  CKF.I.K    ARCH.KOLOCiY. 

indicate  the  seventieth  Olympiad  (500  !..<'.),  we  arc 
able  to  group  this  monument  with  others  which 
show  us  the  first  attempt  of  Attic  sculpture. 

After  the  banishment  of  the  Pcisistratiche,  the 
movement  in  art  was  not  arrested.  Names  of  well- 
known  artists  testify  to  this.  Anterior  was  charged  by 
order  of  the  people  to  execute  the  statues  of  1  larmodius 
and  Aristogciton,  the  slayers  of  Ilipparchus:  Amphi- 
cratcs  sculptured  a  lioness  in  memory  of  the  courtesan 
Lcrcna,  the  brave  accomplice  of  the  two  tyrannicides. 
Carried  away  by  Xerxes  at  the  time  of  the  Persian 
wars,  the  group  of  the  Tyrannicides  was  replaced  by 
another  in  bronze,  the  work  of  the  sculptors  Critios 
and  Ncsiotcs  ;  Alexander,  many  years  later,  brought 
back  from  Asia  the  work  of  Antcnor,  and  restored  it 
to  the  Athenians.  The  group  of  Critios  and  Xcsiotes 
is  reproduced  on  an  Athenian  coin.  Small  as  are  the 
dimensions  of  this  representation,  if  we  regard  it  in  con- 
junction with  an  analogous  bas-relief  upon  the  sides  of  a 
marble  chair  in  Athens,  we  obtain  a  sufficiently  clear 
idea  of  the  original  group  of  Critios  and  Xcsiotes  to 
enable  us  to  see  a  copy  of  it  in  the  group  of  the 
Tyrannicides  in  the  museum  of  Xaples.  The  two  con- 
spirators are  represented  as  brandishing  their  daggers 
and  moving  forward  at  a  rapid  pace.  The  modern 
restorations  removed,  we  see  in  this  group  traces  of  an 
already  advanced  style.  In  these  two  sculptors,  with 
their  contemporary  Hegias,  we  touch  closely  upon 
the  borders  of  the  period  of  perfection.  Hegias, 
of  whose  work  we  know  only  through  the  state- 
ments of  ancient  writers,  was  the  first  master  of 


•^ 


FlG.    43. — WOMAN    ENTERING    A    CHARIOT. 

(Bas-relief  on  the  Acropolis  of  Athens. ) 


140  GRKF.K    ARCH.l'OLOGY. 

Phcidias,  before  the  great  sculptor  went  to  Argos  to 
put  himself  under  the  instruction  of  Agcladas. 
Lucian  compares  the  works  of  these  masters  with 
those  of  the  earlier  Attic  orators  ;  he  found  them 
sinewy,  somewhat  harsh,  of  careful  design,  indicating 
labour  and  pains."* 

This  judgment  of  the  rhetorician  of  Samosata  may 
be  applied  to  the  sculptures  preserved,  contemporary 
with  these  last  of  the  archaic  masters.  Such  is  a 
bas-relief  discovered  on  the  Acropolis  representing 
a  bearded  person  (Hermes  or  Theseus),  wearing 
a  pctasus  upon  his  head  and  clad  in  a  tunic  with 
small  folds.  Besides  this  there  is  the  interesting  bas- 
relief  of  the  Acropolis,  in  which  a  woman  is  preparing 
to  enter  a  chariot.  (Fig.  43.)  Is  this  Athena,  or  is  it  a 
Wingless  Victory  ?  No  distinctive  divine  attribute 
marks  this  figure,  which  is  draped  in  a  long  tunic  and 
a  robe,  the  folds  of  which  are  treated  with  the  most 
delicate  art.  The  proportions  of  the  bas-relief  are 
slender  and  fine  ;  while  in  its  style  we  see  at  their 
dawning  the  special  qualities  most  characteristic  of 
Attic  genius,  f 

Atticism  is,  in  fact,  one  of  the  most  persistent  and 
permanent  of  the  manifestations  of  Greek  genius. 
Towards  the  close  of  the  sixth  century  KC,  .Athe- 
nian artists  showed  the  same  tendencies  that  we  find 
two  centuries  later  in  Praxiteles :  thorough  know- 


*  Lucian,  Khct.  prate pt. ,  9. 

t  All  the  monuments  of  the  first  Attic  School  cannot  be  men- 
tioned here.  Cf.  Schone,  Griechische  Reliefs,  1872,  the  plates  of  which 
represent  some  of  these  works. 


SCULPTURE.  141 

ledge,  taste  for  the  exquisite,  and  a  keen  feeling  for 
grace  in  art.  Long,  slender,  elegant  figures,  at  times 
too  slender,  that  remind  one  of  Florentine  sculptures  ; 
great  dexterity  in  the  treatment  of  light  drapery, 
which  seems  almost  translucent ;  low  relief ;  patient 
and  minute  care  in  workmanship — such  are  the  lead- 
ing characteristics  of  Attic  sculpture  at  the  beginning 
of  the  fifth  century  B.C. 

§  4.   ASIATIC    GREECE    AND    THE    ISLANDS. 

If  we  bear  in  mind  that  Attic  genius  was  one  of  the 
varieties  of  Ionic  genius,  we  shall  not  be  surprised 
at  finding,  in  part  at  least,  its  characteristics  in  the 
sculpture  of  the  lonians.  The  British  Museum 
possesses  some  bas-reliefs  found  by  Mr.  Fellows 
(1838)  at  Xanthus,  in  Lycia ;  they  came  from  an 
edifice  known  as  the  "  Harpy  Monument."  The 
subjects  depicted  are  symbolic  scenes,  in  which  are 
portrayed  winged  harpies,  with  human  heads,  carry- 
ing off  in  their  talons  small  figures,  the  personifica- 
tions of  souls.  At  the  first  glance  we  are  struck  by  the 
analogy  subsisting  between  these  marbles  from  Xanthus 
and  Attic  sculptures.  Undoubtedly  in  the  line  of  the 
same  tradition  maybe  placed  a  statue  of  Hera  (now  in 
the  Louvre),  found  at  Samos,  belonging  to  the  middle 
of  the  sixth  century  B.C.*  (Fig.  44.)  In  spite  of  the  stiff- 
ness of  the  main  lines,  the  execution  betrays  a  hand 
already  sure.  The  artist  has  endeavoured  to  render  the 

*  P.  Girard,  Bulletin  de  Correspond,  hellcn.,  1880,  plates  xin.,  xiv. 


14-  CRKI'.K    AKCII.Knl.OiiY. 

lightness  of  tissue  in  the  drapery.  It  is  easy  to  detect 
in  these  works — all  of  which  have  a  Tamil)'  resem- 
blance—at least  the  therms  of  all  those  qualities  that 
are  peculiar  to  the  Ionian  genius. 

The  artistic  movement,  of  which  we  have  sketched 
the  history,  extended  to  all  parts  of  the  Greek  world. 
This  is  proved  by  sculptures  found  outside  of  the 
countries  already  mentioned.  The  island  of  Thasos 
produced  the  bas-reliefs  that  were  brought  away  by 
M.  Miller,  and  are  now  in  the  Louvre.  They  were 
carved  upon  slabs  of  marble  that  may  have  formed 
the  periphery  of  an  altar,  and  represented  Apollo 
leading  the  chorus  of  nymphs,  and  Hermes  with 
one  of  the  Graces  (or  Charites).  An  inscription 
leaves  no  mistake  as  to  the  meaning  : — "  To  the 
Nymphs,  and  to  Apollo  Nymphcgetcs,  sacrifice  what 
victims  you  choose,  male  or  female  :  sheep  and  hogs 
are  forbidden  :  no  pojan  is  sung." 

The  progress  of  art  was  felt  even  as  far  as 
Maccdon.  At  Pharsalia  M.  Ileuzcy  discovered  the 
charming  bas-relief  styled  by  him  the  "  Exaltation  of 
the  Flower."*  Two  young  girls  seem  to  be  in  con- 
versation ;  one  of  them  presents  a  flower  and  a  fruit 
to  her  companion,  while  the  other,  holding  up  in  her 
right  hand  a  full-blown  flower,  seems  to  exalt  and 
worship  it.  With  no  wish  to  define  too  narrowly  the 
meaning  of  this  charming  dialogue,  Hcuzcy  believes 
that  this  monument  refers  to  the  cultus  of  Core, 
daughter  of  Dcmetcr,  a  divinity  suggesting  in  Greck 

*  It  is  without  doubt  a  fragment  of  a  mortuary  stele. 


SCULPTURE. 


legend  the  ephemeral  but 
incessantly  recurring  bloom 
of  nature.  While  we  may 
not  be  able  to  infer  the 
existence  of  a  distinct 
Pharsalian  school  of  sculp- 
ture, it  must  be  recognised 
that  Greek  art  at  this  epoch 
had  a  great  power  of  ex- 
pansion. This  bas  -  relief, 
shows  that  artistic  activity 
had  penetrated  into  the 
northern  parts  of  Greece. 
It  may,  however,  have  been 
produced  in  the  Ionian 
schools  of  Asia  Minor  ;  for 
we  cannot  maintain  with 
certainty  that  at  this  time 
Greece  had  any  artistic 
schools '  that  were  dis- 
tinct from  those  of  the 
lonians.* 

The  museums  of  Europe 
possess  still  other  marbles 
that  one  is  tempted  to  as- 
cribe to  the  period  which  we 
are  studying.  But  we  must 

*  Cf.  the  theory  of  Brunn, 
Paionios  und  die  nordgriechische 
Kunst  (Silzungsbericht  der  bayer. 
Akad.),  1876. 


FIG.  44. — HERA. 
(Statue  found  at  Samos. 


144  C.RF.KK  ARcii.r.oi.fxiY. 

distinguish  with  great  care  between  really  archaic 
and  archaistic  art,  the  latter  being  mere  imitation. 
At  certain  epochs  when  the  creative  energy  in  art 
has  become  exhausted,  men  return,  under  the  in- 
fluence of  fashion,  to  a  pseudo-archaism,  a  sort  of 
archaeological  reproduction  of  an  ancient  style.* 
Thus  the  altar  of  the  twelve  gods  (Louvre)  seems 
to  be  a  copy  of  that  raised  by  1'cisistratus,  and  is 
not  earlier  than  Hadrian's  time.  Likewise  the 
archaistic  Athena  of  Dresden,  and  the  Artemis  of 
Naples — the  base  adorned  with  reliefs  representing 
the  dispute  of  the  Tripod,  which  is  also  to  be  seen  in 
Naples — are  works  of  an  assumed  archaism,  and  en- 
tirely lack  that  na'ivcte  which  is  characteristic  of 
original  works.  Imitations  of  this  class,  however,  are 
of  great  interest ;  they  emphasise  the  essential  notes 
of  the  style  which  they  aim  to  reproduce. 

We  see  by  the  monuments  of  this  period  that  the 
archaic  masters  were  possessed  of  great  knowledge 
and  skill  ;  the  Dorians  had  a  sternness  of  design  and 
a  knowledge  of  the  human  body  that  were  not  to  be 
surpassed.  They  lacked,  however,  the  power  to  rise 
superior  to  their  knowledge;  they  needed  to  be  eman- 
cipated from  slavery  to  the  mere  study  of  the  human 
model  ;  they  had  not  yet  that  flexibility  and  liberty 
which  constitute  genius.  Thus,  in  spite  of  their  excel- 
lent qualities,  their  works  arc  stiff  and  harsh  ;  energy 
and  precision  arc  carried  to  excess.  \Ycrc  an  artist 
of  genius  to  appear,  he  would  put  into  practice  this 

*  Cf.  in  Le  Bas-I'"oucart,  luscr.  du  IV/oponhc,  p.  53,  an  archaistic 
statue  executed  113  H.c. 


SCULPTURE.  145 

great  knowledge,  he  \vould  animate  it  \vith  his  o\vn 
personality  ;  he  would  bring'  it  into  the  service  of 
larger  conceptions,  and  art  would  thus  attain  perfec- 
tion. It  is  one  of  the  general  laws  of  art,  that  great 
epochs  arc  prepared  for  by  the  patient  labour  of 
earlier  masters  ;  there  is  no  sudden  bursting  forth  of 
genius. 

These  archaic  masters  are  what  in  our  day  would 
be  called  realists.  It  was  through  lack  of  accurate 
knowledge  of  them  that  Winckelmann  wrote: — "  Given 
up  to  a  blind  study  of  the  ideal,  they  wrought  in 
accordance  with  a  general  system  adopted  by  them, 
rather  than  after  nature."  On  the  contrary,  there  is  no 
nearer  approach  to  nature  in  art  than  in  the  marbles 
of  this  period.  The  archaic  masters  copied  from  life; 
if  we  are  to  seek  anywhere  for  the  true  Greek  type, 
we  can  beyond  doubt  find  it  in  the  marbles  of  the 
earlier  style,  the  very  exaggerations  of  which  are  a 
pledge  of  truth.  It  is  for  these  reasons  that  archaic 
Greek  sculpture  deserves  a  profound  study.  There 
is  no  keener  pleasure  than  that  of  analysing  the 
characteristics  of  genius  at  its  struggling  infancy,  and 
of  tracing  these  characteristics  in  the  earnest  and 
unconcealed  efforts  that  lend  to  its  creations  the 
paramount  charm  of  sincerity. 


146 


CHAPTER    IV. 

FOURTH     J'KKIOD. 

SCULPTURE  FROM  THK    KIGHTIF.TII   TO  THI.    MNKTY  SIXTH 
OLYMPIAD  (460    i;.c.— yfi  n.c.). 


§  I.    CALAMIS    AM)    MYRON. 

IT  \\"as  in  Attica  and  in  Peloponnesus  that  sculpture 
attained  its  highest  perfection  during  the  brief  but 
brilliant  period  between  the  Persian  wars  and  the 
first  years  of  the  fourth  century  n.c.  In  Athens  the 
name  of  Phcidias  towered  above  all  other  names,  and 
it  has  been  customary  to  regard  him  as  the  uncon- 
tcsted  head  of  the  Attic  school.  At  the  same  time 
we  should  not  forget  that  at  his  side  lived  artists  who 
still  retained  their  own  individuality  and  native  bent. 
Greek  art  of  the  best  period  remained  free  and  varied; 
it  did  not  warp  itself  to  suit  the  formulas  of  schools. 
The  more  we  know  of  this  wonderful  fifth  century 
n.C.,  which  produced  the  greatest  works  of  sculpture, 
the  more  arc  we  convinced  that  perfect  liberty 
characterised  the  activity  of  Greek  art  at  its  best. 

In  order  to  obtain  a  just  idea  of  the  Attic  school 
in  the  second  half  of  the  fifth  century  n.C.,  we  must  first 
consider  those  masters  who  were  still  under  the  spell 
of  ancient  traditions,  the  most  important  of  whom  arc 


SCULPTURE.  147 

Calami's  and  Myron.  The  period  of  Calamis'  greatest 
activity  extends  from  the  seventy-fifth  to  the  eighty- 
seventh  Olympiad  (480  B.C. — 432  B.C.) ;  he  was,  then, 
a  contemporary  of  Pheidias.  Like  the  old  masters 
that  preceded  him,  he  attempted  every  department 
of  plastic  art :  groups  of  bronze,  colossal  statues, 
figures  of  gods,  of  men,  of  animals  ;  his  work  com- 
prehended every  variety.  He  excelled  especially  in 
animal  figures,  as  testify  his  two  racing  horses  (/ce'A,??Te<? 
ITTTTOI),  ridden  by  boys,  which  were  greatly  admired 
at  Olympia.  Pliny  speaks  of  his  colossal  statue  of 
Apollo  at  Apollonia,  in  Pontus,  as  a  masterpiece  of 
daring  art.  The  ancients  greatly  praised  a  statue 
known  as  Sosandra,  either  an  Aphrodite  Pandemus 
or  an  Aphrodite  dedicated  by  an  Athenian  near  the 
entrance  to  the  Acropolis.  Lucian  mentions  its  "grave 
and  lurking  smile," *  and  the  well-ordered  and  becom- 
ing arrangement  of  its  drapery.  There  was  but  little 
harshness  in  the  style  of  Calamis,  which  was  compared 
in  antiquity  with  that  of  the  orator  Lysias  for  its 
"delicacy  and  grace." f  These  are  the  excellencies 
and  the  defects  of  the  earlier  Attic  school.  Calamis 
executed  for  the  people  of  Tanagra  a  Hermes  Crio- 
phorus  (carrying  a  ram  upon  his  shoulders),  which  is 
reproduced  on  a  bronze  coin  of  the  city.  Guided  by 
this  reproduction,  we  recognise  copies  of  the  Hermes 
of  Calamis  in  a  terra-cotta  statuette  from  Tanagra, 
and  in  a  marble  in  the  Pembroke  collection. 

The  date  at  which   Myron   is  to  be  placed   is   a 

*  Lucian.  Imagines,  6.      (T&  ,ue(?>ia,ua  ut^vbv  Kal  \e\r)dos.) 
t  Dionysius  Ilalic.,  DC  Isocr.  3,  p.  542. 
K    2 


148  CKF.KK    ARCIl.r.OUXJY. 

matter  of  great  controversy.  Brunn  *  does  not  accept 
the  date  given  by  Pliny  (ninetieth  Olympiad,  420  B.C.). 
It  is  probable  that  Myron,  who  was  born  at  Kleuthcroj, 
lived  about  the  eightieth  Olympiad  (460  U.C.),  and  was 
a  contemporary  of  Calami's.  Like  Pheidias,  he  was  a 
pupil  of  the  Arrive  Ageladas,  and  remained  faithful 
to  old  traditions  by  working  almost  entirely  in 
bronze.  He  made  numerous  statues  of  gods  and  of 
athletes,  many  of  which  were  carried  off  by  the 
Romans.  His  group  of  Marsyas  and  Athena, 
where  the  satyr  starts  back  in  a  surprised  attitude, 
was  the  inspiration  of  several  similar  monuments 
preserved  in  our  museums,  among  which  are  the 
satyr  of  the  museum  of  the  Latcran,  in  Rome, 
and  a  bronze  in  the  British  Museum. t  A  copy  of 
Myron's  Discobolus  is  certainly  recognisable  in  a 
famous  statue  in  Rome  (at  the  palace  Alassiini  allc 
Colonne],  which  represents  a  player  about  to  hurl 
the  discus.  The  ancients  considered  the  Discobolus 
the  work  of  a  daring  innovator  ;  in  reality  the  life- 
like attitude  of  the  player  testifies  that  the  artist  had 
entered  upon  a  new  method  marked  by  freedom  and 
boldness  of  style.  Myron  excelled  in  his  renderings 
of  material  life  ;  his  animal  figures  bore  the  stamp  of 
reality,  and  the  poets  of  the  Anthology  praise  to 
excess  a  bronze  cow  executed  by  him.  The  epigram 
ascribed  to  Anacrcon  is  well  known  : — "  Shepherd, 
pasture  thy  flock  further  on,  lest  thinking  thou  sccst 

*   Hrunn,  dschichte  dcr  »rit-ch.  A'Hits/L-r,  Vol.  I  ,  p.  242. 
f  Cf.,  on  the  Marsyas  of  Myron,   M.  Collignon's  notice  in  Rayet, 
Monnm.  de  FArt  antique. 


FlG.    45. — COPY   OF   THE    DISCOBOLUS. 

(Rome.) 


150 


(iRKKK    ARCII.KOLOGY. 


the   cow   of  Myron   breathing,   thou   maycst   wish  to 
carry  her  away  with  thy  oxen."  * 

With  Calami's  and  Myron,  another  artist  who  did 
not    belong    to     the    Attic    school,     Pythagoras    of 


SL&^LIV  1 


FlC.    46.—  METOPK    OF    THE   TKMI'I.E    OF    THESEUS. 

(Athens.) 

Rhcgium.t  well  represents  that  generation  of  sculptors 
who  may  be  termed  the  last  precursors  of  the  age  of 
perfected  art.  In  point  of  time,  they  already  belong 
to  the  period  of  perfection  ;  but  their  style  still 

*  Anthoi.  Paint.,  715. 

t  Cf.  Wald  stei  n ,  Pythagoras  of  Khegium  and  the  Early  Athletic  Statues, 
in  Journal  of  Hellenic  Studies,  I.  pp.  168  —  201,  and  II.  pp.  332—351. 


FlG.    47. — DEMETER,    TRITTOLEMUS,    AND    CORE. 

(Bas-relief  from  F.leusis.     Museum  of  Athens.) 


15-  CiKKKK    AKCIhKoLO(,Y. 

exhibits  the  archaic  character,  which  is  no\v  soon  to 
be  left  behind.  The  period  corresponds  politically 
with  the  close  of  the  influence  of  Ciinon,  when 
Athens  was  making  good  the  devastation  caused  by 
the  Persian  wars,  and  was  about  to  enter  upon  the 
m.)st  glorious  epoch  in  her  history. 

The  sculptures  of  the  temple  known  as  theThcseum, 
in  Athens,  show  us  the  transition  from  the  archaic 
style  to  that  of  this  epoch.  Begun  in  the  fourth  year  of 
the  seventy-seventh  Olympiad  (469  i;.c.),  and  finished 
after  the  eightieth  Olympiad  (460  U.C.),  this  temple, 
which  is  known  as  the  Theseum,  is  an  excellent 
specimen  of  the  Doric  order.  Though  nothing  has 
been  left  of  the  pediments,  eighteen  metopes  have 
been  preserved.  They  portray  a  series  of  the 
labours  of  Heracles  and  of  the  exploits  of  Theseus. 
The  frieze  that  runs  around  the  wall  of  the  cclla 
represents  the  conflict  at  the  marriage  of  Peirithotis, 
between  the  Lapithru  and  Athenians  on  the  one 
hand,  and  the  Centaurs  on  the  other.  The  style  is 
one  of  great  energy,  the  attitudes  are  life-like  ;  it  is 
the  composition  alone,  still  cold  and  somewhat  harsh, 
that  indicates  that  these  marbles  are  earlier  than 
those  of  the  Parthenon. 

The  same  remarks  apply  to  the  beautiful  bas- 
relief  found  at  Kleusis,  where  Dcmcter,  with  her 
daughter,  is  giving  to  the  youthful  Triptolemus  the 
grain  of  wheat  which  is  to  fructify  the  Rharian 
plains.  This  work  is  one  of  great  beauty,  and  the 
delicacy  of  the  modelling,  the  suppleness  and  grace 
of  movement,  are  those  of  the  purest  stylc  ;  but  in 


SCULPTURK.  153 

certain  details  are  to  be  recognised  the  influences  of 
archaic  art,  still  very  persistent,  from  which  Attic 
sculpture  did  not  emancipate  itself  until  under  the 
spell  of  the  genius  of  Pheidias. 

§    2.    PHEIDIAS    AND    HIS    SCHOOL. 

Under  the  government  of  Pericles  everything  con- 
tributed to  give  a  wonderful  impulse  to  the  arts  : 
national  pride,  exalted  by  the  victories  of  the  Persian 
wars,  the  necessity  for  rebuilding  edifices  laid  waste 
by  the  enemy,  together  with  the  progress  of  an 
enlightened  democracy,  gave  to  the  public  spirit 
of  Athens  a  remarkable  freedom.  "  Athens," 
said  Pericles,  "abundantly  provided  with  all  the 
means  of  defence  required  in  war,  ought  to  use 
her  wealth  in  works  which,  once  finished,  should 
assure  her  an  undying  glory."*  These  words  sum  up 
Pericles'  system  of  administration.  Thus,  under  the 
government  of  this  great  statesman  and  orator,  Athens 
was  adorned  with  edifices  with  a  rapidity  that  long 
amazed  the  Greeks.  As  late  as  the  time  of  Plutarch 
these  monuments  possessed  all  the  "  freshness  and 
brilliancy  of  youth,  glowing  with  that  charm  of 
novelty  which  preserved  them  from  the  touch  of 
time."f  After  the  Thescum  and  the  Temple  of 
Wingless  Victory,  were  erected  the  Parthenon,  finished 
in  the  third  year  of  the  eighty-fifth  Olympiad  (438 
B.C.)  ;  the  Propylaea  (between  the  eighty-fifth  and 

*   Plutarch,  Pcrichs,  12.  t  Plutarch,  ibid.,  13. 


154  CRKF.K    AKCII.KOUHiY. 

eighty-sixth  Olympiads,  440  i;.r.  436  B.C.),  and  the 
Krechthcum,  begun  in  the  year  before  the  opening  of 
the  Pcloponncsian  war,  and  finished  about  393  i:.C. 
These  structures  occasioned  activity  in  all  the  arts, 
and  especially  in  sculpture.  Sculpture,  in  fact,  was  not 
separable  from  architecture  :  it  sought  no  isolated 
path.  At  that  epoch  of  faith  and  belief  its  supreme 
function  was  to  aid  in  adorning  the  temples  of  the 
gods;  and  since  religion  is,  in  reality,  one  of  the 
forms  of  public  life,  art  in  the  time  of  Pericles  re- 
ceived from  the  religious  and  from  the  national  sen- 
timent a  dignity  and  a  purity  of  inspiration  that  can 
never  be  surpassed. 

It  is  well  known  that  Pericles  entrusted  Pheidias 
with  the  direction  of  the  artistic  works.  Pheidias  was 
born  probably  about  the  seventieth  Olympiad  (500 
U.C.),  and  first  went  through  a  period  of  study  under 
Agcladas.  The  second  period  of  his  life  was  passed 
under  the  administration  of  Cimon.  Me  then  executed 
statues,  the  subjects  of  which  related  to  the  Persian 
wars  ;  among  others,  a  bronze  group  consecrated  at 
Delphi,  made  from  a  tithe  of  the  booty  captured  at 
Marathon.  From  this  period  also  dates  the  colossal 
bronze  statue  of  Athena  placed  upon  the  Acropolis, 
and  known  by  the  name  of  Athena  Promachus  or 
ITuXat/Lta^o?.  She  stood  with  one  hand  holding  her 
lance,  while  the  other  held  her  shield,  which,  much 
later,  was  decorated  with  bas-reliefs  by  Mys.  From 
afar  could  be  seen  the  point  of  the  spear  and  the  crest 
of  her  helmet  towering  high  above  the  Acropolis. 
Athenian  coins,  which  show  the  Acropolis  in  profile, 


SCULPTURE.  155 

give  us  some  idea  of  the  enormous  dimensions  of  the 
statue.  Here  might  be  mentioned  other  works  by 
Phcidias,  the  precise  dates  of  which  are  uncertain: 
statues  of  gold  and  ivory  for  the  most  part,  such  as 
the  Athena  Lemma  of  the  Acropolis, 
an  Amazon,  and  a  bronze  Athena 
later  transported  to  Rome. 

But    the     period     of    Pheidias's 
greatest    works    is    that   which    co- 
incides   with    the    administration  of 
Pericles,    when    the    great    sculptor 
was     surrounded    by     a    group    of      TH/^RoroLis. 
artists  working  under  his  directions    (On  an  Athenian  coin. 
— Alcamenes,  Agoracritus,  Cresilas, 
Colotes,    Paeon ius,  and  his  own  brother,  the    painter 
Panaenus.     It  was  at  this   time  that  he  executed  the 
Athena  Parthenus  and  the  Zeus  of  Olympia. 

Concerning  the  close  of  his  life  there  is  but  little 
certainty,  on  account  of  the  contradictory  stories  that 
have  come  down  to  us  :  the  suit  at  law  brought  against 
him  by  the  Athenians,  his  exile  in  Elis,  during  which  he 
executed  \vorks  for  Olympia,  and  his  death  in  the 
first  year  of  the  eighty-seventh  Olympiad  (432  B.C.), 
are  well  known.  Few  names  were  more  popular  than  his 
in  the  ancient  world  ;  legend  gathered  about  it,  and 
in  the  Middle  Ages,  when  there  remained  but  a  con- 
fused remembrance  of  classical  antiquity,  the  name  of 
Pheidias  survived  oblivion.  A  Roman  chronicle  of  the 
twelfth  century  A.D.  represents  him  as  a  famous 
philosopher,  who  visited  Rome  at  the  time  of  Tiberius. 
The  Romans  of  the  Middle  Ages  found  traces  of  this 


fabulous  journey  in  the  marble  horses  which  are  to- 
day seen  on  Monte  Cavallo  ;  on  one  of  the  pedestals 
is  an  inscription  dating  from  the  Renaissance  (oi'YS 
J'IilII.1-.),  which  consecrates  the  popular  legend. 

\Ye  can  form  an  idea  of  the  masterpieces  of 
1'heidias  only  by  the  aid  of  ancient  writers  and  of  a 
few  monuments  still  preserved. 

The  Athena  Parthcnus,  placed  in  the  Parthenon 
in  the  third  year  of  the  eighty-fifth  Olympiad  (438  B.C.), 
in  the  archonship  of  Thcodorus,  has  been  minutely 
described  by  Pausanias  : — "  The  statue  of  Athena  is 
made  of  gold  and  of  ivory.  On  the  top  of  her  helmet 
is  a  sphinx,  and  on  either  side  are  griffins  .  .  .  The 
statue  is  a  standing  figure,  robed  in  a  long  tunic  ;  upon 
her  breast  she  carries  the  head  of  Medusa  in  ivory. 
The  Victory  which  she  holds  in  one  hand  is  about  four 
cubits  high.  In  the  other  hand  the  goddess  holds  a  spear ; 
at  her  feet  is  her  shield,  and  near  the  spear  a  serpent, 
said  to  symbolise  Erichthonius.  Upon  the  pedestal  of 
the  statue  is  represented  the  birth  of  Pandora."*  The 
shield  was  decorated  on  the  exterior  by  sculptures, 
portraying  the  battle  of  the  Amazons,  and  on  the  in- 
terior was  represented  the  war  of  the  gods  and  giants. 

We  cannot  dwell  upon  the  different  attempts 
made  to  restore  the  Athena  Parthcnus — cither  those 
made  on  paper,  like  that  of  Quatremere  de  Otiincy  ; 
or  those  made  in  sculpture,  like  the  Minerva  of  the 
sculptor  Simart,  executed  for  the  Due  de  Luynes. 
Materials  for  restorations  are  to  be  found  in  some 

*  1'ausanius,  i.  24.  5  —  7.      C/~.  Pliny,  N. II.  xxxvi.  iS — 19. 


SCULPTURE.  157 

ancient  monuments,    in  which  clear  imitations  of  the 


FlG.  49. — THE    I.ENORMANT    PALLAS. 

(Athens.) 

work  of    Pheidias    may    be  recognised ;    the    details 


158  CKI.KK  AK(  H.KOI.CH.Y. 

of  the  head  and  of  the  helmet  seem  to  he  accurately 
enough  reproduced  in  a  gem  cut  by  Aspasius,  now  in 
the  museum  of  Vienna,  and  on  Athenian  tetrad rachms 
of  a  date  subsequent  to  Pericles.  The  attitude  of  the 
statue  is  given  on  a  statuette  preserved  in  Athens  (the 
Lcnormant  Pallas),  which  seemed  to  Charles  Lcnor- 
mant  to  be  a  careless  reduction  of  this  masterpiece  of 
Phcidias.*  In  this  statuette  the  goddess  wears  the 
anipcclionion,  a  short  tunic  worn  above  the  long  tunic, 
and  a  heavy  argis  on  her  breast.  (Fig.  49.) 

Very  lately,  in  1881,  was  discovered  in  Athens, 
near  the  Varvakcion,  a  new  statue  of  Athena,  a 
product  of  the  second  century  A.D.,  which  seems 
to  be  an  imitation  of  Phciclias'  work.f  This  is  not 
a  mere  sketch,  but  a  marble  more  carefully  executed. 
The  helmet  is  decorated  with  the  sphinx  and  griffin 
described  by  Pausanias  ;  the  a?gis,  with  a  fringe  of 
serpents,  covers  the  chest,  and  the  costume  is  identic- 
ally the  same  as  that  of  the  Lcnormant  figure.  But 
the  new  marble  shows  us  some  details  entirely  in- 
dividual :  thus  the  right  hand  of  the  goddess  holds 
a  Victory  set  obliquely  and  turned  towards  the  spec- 
tator; in  order  to  sustain  this  weight,  the  hand  rests 
upon  a  small  column  placed  in  one  corner  of  the 
pedestal.  Undoubtedly,  however,  this  statue  offers  us 
the  most  trustworthy  materials  known  for  the  restora- 
tion of  the  Athena  Parthcnus. 

*  A.  Conze,  Die  Athenasstatue  des  Phidias  iiii  Parthenon,  I £65. 

f  Bull,  de  Corr.  hcUi'niqne,  January,  iSSi  ;  Mittheilungen  <?cs 
deutschen  Archiiol.  Inst.,  1881,  plates  i.,  ii.;Th.  Schreiber,  Die  Athena 
Parthenos  des  Pheidias,  1883. 


SCULPTURE.  159 

There  might  here  be  mentioned  a  long  series  of 
monuments  which  had  their  origin,  more  or  less 
directly,  in  this  statue.  But  though  we  may  by  means 
of  these  imitations  perceive  the  attitude  and  costume 
of  the  goddess,  it  is  difficult  to  bring  before  the 
imagination  the  aspect  she  must  have  presented 
with  the  flesh  treated  in  ivory,  the  eyes  of  precious 
stones,  and  the  drapery  executed  in  gold  of  different 
tints  by  the  stainers  of  gold  (/3a(£et<?  -^pvaov)  who 
worked  under  Pheidias. 

The  Zeus,  consecrated  in  the  temple  at  Olympia, 
with  the  inscription,  "  Pheidias,  son  of  Charmidcs, 
made  me,"  aroused  throughout  Greeceuniversal  admira- 
tion ;  to  die  without  seeing  it  was  regarded  as  a  mis- 
fortune. The  description  of  Pausanias  shows  it  to  us 
seated  on  a  throne  of  gold,  ivory,  marble,  and  ebon}-, 
which  was  decorated  with  figures  both  in  high-relief 
and  in  low-relief;*  on  the  back  of  the  throne  were  the 
Seasons  and  the  Graces  (Charites),  and  about  the 
base  the  great  divinities  who  make  up  the  sovereign 
council  of  the  gods.  The  seated  god  was  in  a  calm 
and  impressive  attitude,  holding  in  one  hand  a 
Winged  Victory  and  in  the  other  his  sceptre  ;  he 
was  clad  in  a  mantle  that  left  bare  one  shoulder 
and  the  chest,  while  it  covered  the  lower  part  of 
his  body  with  its  golden  folds,  which  were  enamelled 
with  flowers  ;  his  feet  rested  upon  a  footstool  adorned 
with  golden  lions  and  figures  representing  the  con- 
test between  Theseus  and  the  Amazons.  This  is  the 

*  Pausanias,  v.  n.  i — 9. 


i6o 

attitude  of  the  god  on  a  coin  of  J'.lis,  which  gives  an 
authentic  reduction  of  the  statue.  Tlie  type  of  the 
face,  according  to  the  well-known  anecdote,  was  sug- 
gested to  1'heidias  by  two  verses  of  Homer  (Hind,  i. 
528 — 530).*  It  is  clear,  in  the  first  place,  that  Pheidias 
imparted  to  the  face  of  the  god  a  serene  and  solemn 
beauty  that  is  reproduced  in  several  ancient  busts,  imi- 
tations more  or  less  faithful  of  the  Olympian  Zeus  ;  it 
is  sufficient  to  mention  the  Otricoli  bust  in  the  Vatican, 
and  the  Zeus  Verospi  of  the  same  museum.  But  the 
most  perfect  copy  is  that  furnished  on  a  beautiful  coin  of 
Klis  :  the  hair,  falling  simply  upon  the  neck,  is  bound 
by  a  wreath  of  olive  ;  the  expression  of  the  face  is 
one  of  calm  majesty,  and  is  full  of  sweetness. f 

The  Athena  Parthenus  and  the  Olympian  Zeus, 
from  the  point  of  view  of  technique,  belong  to  the 
class  of  statues  known  as  chryselephantine,  because 
their  materials  arc  principally  gold  and  ivory.  This 
species  of  statuary  sprang  directly  from  the  painted, 
or  polychrome  sculpture,  which  flourished  vigorously 
at  the  time  of  Pericles,  but  it  was  the  richer  variety. 
Greek  sculptors  knew  how  to  obtain  marvellous 
effects  from  gold  and  ivory  ;  the  warm  tones  of  the 
ivory  employed  for  the  naked  parts  of  the  body 
give  an  appearance  of  life  to  the  statue,  and  render 
as  well  as  could  be  desired  the  tints  of  the  flesh  ; 
the  gold,  now  red,  now  brown  or  greenish,  offered 

*  Strabo,  viii.  p.  353;  Macrohius,  Saturn,  v.  13. 
t  Cf.    the   restoration   attempted    l>y   Quatremere   de   Quincy,    Lc 
Jupiter  Olytupieti)  1814;  compare  also    L.  de   Roncliaud,   rhidias,   sa 
Vie  ct  ses  0 in' rages,  1861. 


SCULPTURE.  l6l 

surprising  resources  for  colour  effects.  Modern  taste 
finds  difficulty  in  admitting  the  idea  of  polychromatic 
sculpture ;  the  Renaissance  has  accustomed  us  to 
seeing  statues  clad  only  in  the  cold  and  uniform 
colour  of  marble  and  of  stone  ;  we  can  with  difficulty 
conceive  of  that  combination  of  the  sculptured  form 
with  colour  admired  by  the  Greeks.  We  cannot,  how- 
ever, refuse  to  acknowledge  a  form  of  art  which  has 
produced  masterpieces  ;  we  must  not  apply  modern 
theories,  which  strictly  separate  sculpture  and  paint- 
ing, to  Greek  plastic  art ;  our  prejudices  must  give  way 
before  duly  established  facts. 


§  3.  THE  MARBLES  OF  THE  PARTHENON. 

Though  we  are  reduced  to  conjectures  with  re- 
ference to  the  masterpieces  of  Pheidias,  the  Parthenon 
marbles  furnish  us  with  invaluable  testimony  for  the 
due  appreciation  of  at  least  a  part  of  the  work  con- 
ceived by  him,  if  not  executed  by  his  own  hand. 
Through  divers  catastrophes  these  marbles  have  at 
last  come  down  to  us.*  Early  converted  by  two 
obscure  Byzantine  architects  into  a  church,  under  the 
name  of  the  Mother  of  God  (©eoro/co?),  the  Parthenon 
became  a  mosque  after  the  capture  of  Athens  by 
Mahomet  II.  (1456)  ;  its  history  is  then  forgotten 
until  the  point  when  the  Greek  Zygomala  ascribes  its 
statues  to  Praxiteles.  Up  to  this  time  the  marbles 

*  Cf.  the  work  of  Michaelis,Z>^r  Parthenon,  1870—71  ;  De  Laborde, 
Le  Parthenon,  1848  (unfinished);  Beule,  L'Acropok  cTAthcnes ;  Petersen 
Die  Kunst  des  Pheidias  am  Parthenon  rind  zu  Olympia,  1 873  ;  Wald- 
stein,  Essays  on  the  Art  of  Pheidias,  1885. 
L 


1 62  CRKF.K    ARCII.KOLOf;V. 

were  almost  intact,  if  \ve  arc  to  judge  from  the 
sketches  of  San  Gallo  (1465).  In  16/4,  at  the 
time  when  DC  Xointel  was  French  ambassador  at 
Constantinople,  Carre}',  a  draughtsman,  under  the 
directions  of  De  Xointel,  drew  the  statues  of  the 
pediments,  the  metopes,  and  the  friex.c.  These 
drawings  are  of  the  greatest  value  in  restoring 
the  sculptural  decoration  of  the  temple.  The  Par- 
thenon was  in  existence  almost  as  a  whole  when  the 
Venetian  army  of  Morosini  and  of  Konigsmarck  laid 
siege  to  the  Acropolis  (1687) ;  a  bombshell,  aimed  by 
a  Liineburg  lieutenant,  burst  through  the  roof,  and 
made  a  large  breach  in  the  centre  of  the  temple. 
Entering  within  the  Acropolis,  the  Venetians  de- 
stroyed a  portion  of  the  statues.  Finally,  in  the 
earlier  years  of  the  present  century,  Lord  Elgin 
completed  the  spoliation  of  the  Acropolis  by  carrying 
away  more  than  two  hundred  feet  of  the  frieze,  and 
almost  all  that  remained  of  the  pediment  sculpture. 
These  spoils  enrich  the  British  Museum. 

The  only  information  left  us  from  antiquity  as  to 
the  two  pediments  is  furnished  in  a  sentence  of 
Pausanias  : — "  The  subject  of  the  front  pediment  is  the 
birth  of  Athena  ;  that  of  the  opposite  pediment  is  the 
struggle  between  Poseidon  and  Athena  for  the  pos- 
session of  Attica."*  We  arc  not  able  to  group  the 
fragments  into  the  original  design,  except  by  the  aid 
of  Carrey's  drawings.  Of  the  eastern  pediment, 
representing  the  birth  of  Athena,  there  remain  nine 

*  Pausanias,  i.  2^.  5. 


SCULPTURE.  163 

fragments,  now  in  the  British  Museum,  and  one  other 
still  in  its  place  in  the  Parthenon.  Arranging  them 
in  the  following  order,  passing  from  left  to  right,  we 
are  able  to  restore  the  scene  as  conceived  by  the 
Athenian  master.  First  appears  the  Titan  Hyperion, 
guiding  his  horses  as  they  emerge  from  the  waters  ; 
then  a  seated  figure  known  as  Theseus  (or  Dionysus),* 
admirable  in  style,  of  energetic  design  and  finished 
execution  ;  further  along  come  Demeter  and  Core 
together  ;  behind  them  Iris  runs  to  announce  to  the 
world  the  birth  of  the  goddess.  The  centre  of  the 
scene  is  lacking,  and  can  be  supplied  only  upon 
conjecture.f  On  the  right,  a  male  torso,  a  fragment 
of  a  Victory,  with  expanded  wings,  the  wonderful 
group  called  the  Fates,  where  Pandrosus  is  doubtless 
to  be  recognised,  and  two  of  the  Seasons  ^flpai), 
Thallo  and  Carpo.  Finally,  the  chariot  of  Selene, 
descending  into  the  waters,  closes  the  composition,  the 
several  parts  of  which  were  arranged  after  the  laws  of 
studied  symmetry.  The  groups  of  statues  in  a  half- 
reclining  position  correspond  to  each  other  with  per- 
fect harmony,  as  do  the  various  parts  of  strophe  and 
of  antistrophe  in  the  ancient  chorus ;  wrhile  the  figures 
of  Day  (Hyperion)  and  Night  (Selene),  closing  in  the 
scene,  seem  to  show  that  it  had  for  its  theatre  the 
sky,  glowing  with  sunlight. 

The  western  pediment  is  more  mutilated.     In  the 
principal  fragments  are  recognised  the  seated  figure  of 

*  [Brunn  sees  Mount  Olympus,  scene  of  Athena's  birth,   in  this 
figure:  Sitz.-Bcrichte d.  Bayer.  Akad.,  1874.] 

t  Benndorf,  La  Nascita  di  Minerva,  Annali  delf  Inst.,  1865. 
L  2 


164 


C.RKKK    ARCH.  KG  LOGY. 


a  river-god,  doubtless  the  Ccphissus  ;  a  group  com- 
posed of  Aglaurus  and  Cccrops  ;  a  part  of  the  body 
of  Athena  ;  a  powerful  torso,  which  can  be  that  of  no 


FlG.    50.  —  DEMETKR    AND   CORE. 

(Eastern  Pediment  of  the  Parthenon.) 


other  than  Poseidon,  "  with  mighty  chest."  Carrey's 
drawing  shows  that  the  artist  chose  for  his  subject 
the  instant  when  the  two  divinities  arc  in  each 
other's  presence.  By  a  blow  of  his  trident  Poseidon 


I  I 

~  -g 


166  CKKKK  AKCII  r.oi.or.v. 

has  just  made  a  spring  of  water  gush  forth — a  sign 
of  his  power.  He  starts  back  in  amazement  before 
Athena,  who,  with  lance  still  poised,  has  caused 
an  olive-tree  to  spring  forth  from  the  rock  of  the 
Acropolis.  Some  archaeologists  have  found  the  same 
scene  depicted  on  a  vase  from  Kcrtch.*  These 
two  divinities  occupy  the  centre  of  the  pediment, 
and  behind  them  arc  grouped  the  gods  and  heroes 
commonly  associated  with  them  :  near  Athena,  are 
the  divinities  of  Attica,  Pandrosus,  Ilcrse,  Aglaurus, 
and  their  father  Cecrops,  Victory  guiding  the  horses  ; 
near  Poseidon,  arc  Thetis,  Amphitrite,  the  divinities 
of  the  sea,  Aphrodite,  and,  further  on,  Ilissus,  who 
occupies  this  angle  of  the  pediment  as  Cephissus 
occupies  the  opposite  angle.  The  aid  of  colour  was 
employed  to  bring  out  the  figures  with  clue  prominence. 
The  background  of  the  tympanum  against  which 
they  stood  was  painted  blue,  and  was  bordered  with  a 
red  moulding  ;  the  accessories  were  of  gilded  bronze. 

The  metopes  have  shared  the  fate  of  the  pcdi- 
mcntal  statuary  ;  but  little  of  them  is  left.  Of  the 
ninety-two  metopes  in  high-relief  that  adorned  the 
portico  of  the  temple,  there  remained  after  the  ex- 
plosion in  1687  only  thirteen  on  the  north  and  seven- 
teen on  the  south ;f  those  decorating  the  eastern  and 

*  De  Witte,  A/on,  grecs  de  f  Association  des  Etudes  grccqucs,  1875. 
Cf.  Stephani,  Compte  rcndit  tic  la  Commission  arch,  de  Saint  PcUrs- 
boitrg  four  1872  (1875),  and  K.  A.  Gardner,  Athene  in  the  West  Pedi- 
ment of  the  Parthenon  (Journ.  of  Hcllcn.  Studies,  Vol.  III.),  1883. 

t  A  single  metope  remains  in  place ;  fifteen  arc  in  the  JJritish 
Museum,  one  in  the  Louvre,  and  one  in  the  Museum  on  the  Acropolis 
in  Athens. 


SCULPTURE.  167 

western  facades  were  then  in  place,  but  were  afterwards 
broken  into  fragments  by  the  Turks.  In  attempting 
to  find  unity  in  the  subjects  portrayed,  we  are  obliged 
to  resort  to  conjecture  at  many  points.  On  the  east, 
the  scenes  in  each  of  the  metopes  were  taken  from  the 
War  of  the  Gods  and  the  Giants,  where  Athena  was 
figured  at  the  side  of  Zeus.  From  other  sources  we 
are  informed  that  the  young  maidens  of  Athens,  de- 
voted to  the  service  of  the  goddess,  embroidered  upon 
her  peplus  her  exploits  in  this  conflict ;  such  a  subject, 
therefore,  easily  attaches  itself  to  the  religious  tradition 
of  Athena.  On  the  west,  the  metopes  alternately  repre- 
sent a  struggle  between  a  foot-soldier  and  a  mounted 
warrior,  and  between  two  persons  on  foot.  Michaelis 
recognises  here  the  conflict  between  the  Amazons  and 
the  Athenians,*  also  represented  on  the  shield  of  the 
goddess.  On  the  north,  the  extremely  mutilated  con- 
dition of  the  metopes  renders  great  caution  necessary 
in  their  interpretation  ;  on  a  very  plausible  hypothesis 
they  represent  scenes  from  the  Trojan  war.  The  me- 
topes on  the  south  are  in  a  better  state  of  preservation, 
and  in  them  may  be  easily  recognised  the  conflict 
between  the  Lapithae  and  the  Centaurs,  with  scenes 
taken  from  the  Attic  myths,  such  as  the  myth  of 
Demeter  and  Triptolemus,  of  Pandora  and  Epime- 
theus,  of  Aglaurus  and  Herse,  daughters  of  Cecrops, 
who  threw  themselves  from  the,  heights  of  the  Acro- 
polis for  having  violated  the  secret  of  Athena. 

In  the  conflict  between  the  Centaurs  and  Lapithae 

*  Michaelis,  Dcr  Parthenon,  p.  248 


1 68  GRKEK    ARCII.KOLOfiY. 

we  can  happily  appreciate  the  success  with  which  the 
artist  overcame  the  difficulties  in  a  somewhat  mono- 
tonous subject.  In  each  of  the  metopes,  which  invari- 
ably represent  a  Centaur  fighting  with  a  Greek,  the 
conflict  is  expressed  with  different  feeling  :  here  a  Cen- 
taur leaps  upon  the  body  of  his  foe  with  all  the  pride 
of  victory;  there  another  pauses,  as  if  struck  with 
pity,  before  the  half  prostrate  form  of  a  young  Greek. 
The  artist  has  not  shrunk  from  most  realistic  details, 
which  show  a  direct  imitation  of  nature.  The  work- 
manship of  the  metopes  is  unequal  ;  but  we  may  still 
believe  that  they  were  executed  by  artists  grouped 
about  Phcidias.  The  marbles  arc  coloured  in  part  ; 
the  background  of  one  of  the  metopes  found  at  the 
Parthenon  was  red,  and  the  draperies  green.  Paccard 
has  likewise  noticed  other  traces  of  red,  but  these  in- 
dications arc  not  sufficient  to  enable  us  to  restore  the 
whole  in  colour. 

Most  of  the  fragments  of  the  frieze  which  was  around 
the  cella  arc  in  London  ;  the  museum  on  the  .Acropolis 
possesses  a  few,  and  the  western  frieze  is  still  in  place. 
\Vc  know  that  the  whole  of  the  frieze  represented,  in 
an  unbroken  scries  of  subjects,  the  ceremonies  of  the 
Panathenaic  festival.  The  eastern  frieze,  above  the 
temple  entrance,  shows  the  sacred  rites  performed  in 
honour  of  Athena  Polias  by  the  maidens  known  as 
Arrhephori,  and  by  the  chief  priestess.  This  central 
subject  is  set  between  groups  of  the  gods  that  have 
their  sanctuaries  near  the  Acropolis — on  the  one  side 
yEsclepius  and  Hygicia,  Poseidon,  Aglaurus,  and  Pan- 
drosus  ;  on  the  other,  Zeus,  Hera,  Arcs,  and  others, 


SCULPTURE. 


169 


who  in  majestic  attitudes  seem  to  watch  the  proces- 
sion passing  in  the  distance.  The  plan  of  the  com- 
position is  simple  though  grand :  the  procession 


FlG.    52. — COMBAT   OF   A    GREEK   AND   A    CENTAUR. 

(Metope  of  the  Parthenon.) 


advances  in  two  detachments,  divided  in  order  to 
pass  along  each  of  the  long  sides  of  the  temple, 
though  united  at  the  starting  point  in  the  western 
facade.  After  this  plan,  at  once  symmetrical  and 


I/O  C.RKF.K    ARCII.KOLOC.Y. 

harmonious,  advance  the  old  men  of  the  Attic  tribe?, 
resting  upon  long  staves  ;  young  girls,  clad  in  robes 
that  hang  in  straight  folds,  carrying  patera:  and  vases  ; 
the  daughters  of  resident  aliens  (/it'rof/cot),  carrying 
chairs  and  parasols  destined  for  the  young  Athenian 
women  of  free  birth.  Then  follow  the  sacrificial 
victims,  oxen  and  sheep,  the  gift  of  Athenian  colo- 
nies, guided  by  young  men  ;  then  the  sons  of  resi- 
dent aliens  bearing  trays  and  amphora:  ;  flute- 
players  and  players  upon  the  cithara ;  also  the 
thallophoriy  old  men  with  branches  of  olive  in  their 
hands  ;  finally  war-chariots  mounted  by  the  apobatcc 
and  their  charioteers  in  long  tunics,  and  a  cavalcade 
of  horsemen  galloping  onward  at  a  varying  pace. 
The  frieze  on  the  western  front  shows  the  prepara- 
tions of  young  Athenians  about  to  join  the  proces- 
sion, some  of  whom  arc  already  mounted,  while  others 
are  standing  near  their  horses. 

Undoubtedly  the  hand  of  Pheidias  is  not  to  be 
discerned  in  the  execution  of  the  frie/.e.  Portions  of 
it  betray  the  harsh  style  of  the  old  Attic  school.  The 
masters  who  wrought  under  Pheidias  had  not  been  able 
completely  to  free  themselves  from  their  earlier  tradi- 
tions. But  the  composition  is  so  grand  and  so  free  in 
its  design,  so  thoroughly  in  harmony  with  the  remain- 
ing decorative  sculptures  of  the  edifice,  that  we  must 
believe  that  Pheidias  made  the  design  for  the  frieze, 
though  he  did  not  execute  it  in  person.  In  its. totality 
the  frieze  is  wonderfully  characteristic  of  the  style  of 
the  school  of  Pheidias,  as  it  prevailed  long  after  the 
masters  death.  This  style,  noble  and  flowing,  the 


I/-  CRKKK    ARCHAEOLOGY. 

flower  of  beauty,  is  the  most  perfect  expression  of  the 
genius  of  Greece  at  its  most  brilliant  epoch.  After 
long  toil  Greek  art  had  evolved  its  finest  qualities — 
simplicity  and  exquisite  and  sober  taste — which  sought 
the  harmony  of  the  whole  before  all  else.  We  often 
speak  of  the  ideal  of  Greek  art,  but  we  must  always 
remember  that  Greek  art,  even  at  its  best  period, 
never  ceased  to  draw  inspiration  from  nature.  If  we 
examine  the  frie/.e  in  detail,  we  shall  find  that  the 
portion  of  it  due  to  artistic  conventionality  is  very 
small  ;  even  in  attitudes  and  costumes  nothing  is 
artificial.  The  artist,  with  startling  fidelity,  has 
rendered  details  taken  from  life  itself;  the  ideal  is 
nothing  more  than  beauty  made  real  to  the  sight,  but 
this  is  ennobled  by  a  peculiar  charm  that  baffles 
analysis,  a  charm  which  only  long  acquaintance 
with  ancient  marbles  enables  one  to  feel  in  all  its 
delicacy. 

In  spite  of  differences  in  execution,  the  marbles  of 
the  Parthenon  have  a  certain  character  in  common, 
due  to  the  influence  of  1'hciclias.  But  what  is  exactly 
that  part  in  which  we  may  recognise  the  actual  hand 
of  the  master?  The  question  is  a  difficult  one  to 
answer.  The  execution  of  the  figures  of  the  eastern 
pediment  is  generally  attributed  to  him,  while  those 
of  the  western  pediment  arc  regarded  as  the  work  of 
one  of  his  pupils.  We  may  thus  form  an  accurate 
conception  as  to  the  Phcidian  style,  which  sums  up 
and  unites  in  itself  the  progress  of  all  the  Greek 
schools  in  the  fourth  century  B.C.  Phcidias  was  not 
only  an  Attic  Greek ;  trained  among  Dorians,  he 


SCULPTURE.  173 

represents  the  genius  of  Greece  in  its  general  type. 
If  the  Seasons  and  the  group  of  Dcmeter  and  Core 
give  evidence  of  the  qualities  of  purest  Attic  art, 
the  Heracles  and  the  Ilissus  show  to  what  a  degree 
Pheidias  had  made  his  own  the  energy  and  strength 
of  the  Dorian  style.  This  is  a  unique  epoch  in  the 
history  of  Greek  art,  an  epoch  when  an  Athenian 
school,  by  the  achievements  of  one  of  its  masters, 
personifies,  as  it  were,  the  genius  of  Greek  art,  with  all 
its  varied  qualities. 


§    4.    THE    ATTIC    TRADITION    IN    THE    FIFTH    CENTURY    B.C. 

The  genuine  Attic  tradition,  however,  was  not 
lost.  It  is  found  again,  with  its  taste  for  finish  and 
elegance,  in  Alcamencs,  who,  though  born  in  Lcmnos, 
was  Athenian  in  style.  The  dates  that  include  the 
period  of  Alcamenes'  productivity  are  between  438 
B.C.  and  43 1  B.C.,  the  date  of  the  pediment  of  Olympia, 
on  the  one  hand  ;  and  on  the  other,  403  B.C.  or  402 
B.C.,  the  date  of  the  statues  executed  by  him  for  the 
temple  of  Heracles  in  Thebes.  He  is  thus  a  con- 
temporary, and,  according  to  some  ancient  authorities, 
a  rival,  of  Pheidias.  Among  all  his  statues  adorning 
the  most  celebrated  temples  of  Athens,  the  one  most 
admired  was  the  Aphrodite  of  the  Gardens  (ev 
K^Trot?),  of  which  Lucian  describes  certain  features 
as  models  of  elegance  and  of  exquisite  art.* 
At  the  time  of  Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus  it 

*  Lucian,  Imag.,  4  and  6. 


174  GREEK    AKCH.EOI.OGV. 

required  a  certain  amount  of  study  to  distinguish 
between  the  works  of  Alcamenes  and  those  of 
Pheidias.* 

The  monuments  in  which  the  Attic  tradition, 
expanded  by  the  influence  of  Pheidias,  is  clearly 
evident  arc  named  below.  When  work  on  the 
Ercchtheum,  suspended  during  the  greater  part  of 
the  Pcloponncsian  war,  was  resumed  in  the  fourth, 
year  of  the  ninety-second  Olympiad  (409  I5.C. — 
408  B.C.),  a  portion  of  the  sculptures  had  already 
been  executed.  An  inscription,  giving  a  list  of 
the  works  then  completed,  furnishes  us  with  de- 
tailed information  as  to  the  sculptures  of  the  frieze, 
with  the  names  of  the  artists  and  the  cost  of  the 
pieces  already  delivered,  f  There  arc  still  preserved 
a  few  fragments  of  the  frieze,  the  subject  of  which 
was  undoubtedly  taken  from  the  myth  of  Ercchthcus 
and  the  Cccropida:.  The  work  upon  them  is  very 
fine,  and  the  effect  of  it  is  much  heightened  by  the 
sombre  tint  of  the  Eleusinian  marble,  upon  which, 
as  a  background,  are  placed  figures  in  the  white 
marble  of  Paros.  The  part  of  the  temple  known  as 
the  Pandroscum  is  adorned  with  a  sort  of  portico 
raised  upon  an  upper  pedestal-like  floor,  and  made 
up  of  an  entablature  supported  by  statues  of  young 
maidens  (at  tcopai,  or  Caryatides).  They  wear  the  Attic 
costume,  the  hemidiploidion,  the  tunic,  and  a  small 
peplus ;  their  hair,  gathered  into  tresses,  supports 

*  Dionysius    Italic.,    DC   aJmir.   vi    diccndi    in    Demosthcne,   50, 
p.  I,io8  (Kciske). 

t  Corpus  frtscr.  Attic.  I.,  No.  324. 


FlG.    54. — A  VICTORY    UNTYING   HER   SANDAL. 
(Fragment  of  the  Balustrade  of  the  Temple  of  Nike  Apteros.) 


1/6  C.KF.KK    AkCII.V.OLOGV. 

the    spherical    capital    upon    which    rests    the   entab- 
lature. 

The  sculptures  of  the  temple  of  Nike  Apteros 
("Wingless  Victory ")  arc  not  all  of  the  same  date. 
The  frieze,"*  the  subjects  of  which  were  suggested  by 
the  victories  of  the  Athenians  over  either  barbarians 
or  Greeks,  resembles  in  style  that  of  the  sculptures  on 
the  Thcseum  ;  it  is  without  doubt  of  the  same  date 
as  that  temple,  and  anterior  to  the  Propylaja  and 
the  Parthenon.  But  around  the  little  temple  extends 
a  balustrade,  adorned  with  bas-reliefs  exquisite  in 
style. f  These  sculptures,  the  principal  fragments  of 
which  were  discovered  by  Hanscn  and  Schaubert,  are 
later  than  the  rest  of  the  temple,  and  perhaps  date 
from  the  administration  of  Lycurgus  ;  but  nothing 
can  better  illustrate  than  do  these  sculptures  the  style 
of  the  Attic  school  at  the  end  of  this  period,  which 
borders  upon  that  of  Praxiteles.  The  figures  of 
Victories,  messengers  of  Athena,  symbolise  the 
triumphs  of  the  Athenian  people  :  one  leads  a  bullock 
destined  for  sacrifice  ;  another  removes  her  sandals  as 
if  she  had  hastened  from  some  field  of  battle  to 
announce  the  success  of  Athenian  arms.  Their  bodies, 
very  finely  modelled,  arc  outlined  under  light  draperies 
with  most  delicate  folds.  The  style,  less  grand  than 
that  of  the  Parthenon,  clearly  shows  a  return  to  the 
distinctively  Attic  tradition. 

*  The  eastern  and  southern  portions  are  now  in  place  ;  the  other 
portions  are  in  the  British  Museum. 

t  On  these  bas-reliefs  compare  R.  Kekule,  Die  Reliefs  an  dcr 
Balustrade  dcr  Athena  Nike,  iSSr. 


SCULPTURE.  177 

§    5.    SCULPTURK    IN    PELOPONNESUS. — THE    MARBLES    OF 
OLYMP1A. 

We  now  return  to  the  age  of  Pheidias,  in  order  to 
follow  the  development  of  sculpture  in  Peloponnesus 
to  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century  B.C.  Recent  dis- 
coveries have  completely  reshaped  its  history,  and 
the  interesting  marbles  of  Olympia  have  revealed  to 
us  a  school  hitherto  almost  unknown. 

In  the  valley  of  the  Alpheus,  at  the  point  where 
the  Cladeus  unites  with  it,  rose  at  the  foot  of  Mount 
Cronius  the  Doric  Temple  of  Olympian  Zeus,  begun 
in  480  B.C.  by  Libon,  of  Elis,  and  finished  not  more 
than  about  thirty  years  later.  Near  at  hand  were 
the  temple  of  Hera,  the  Metroon,  and  the  Treasuries, 
built  by  various  Greek  cities,  all  combining  to  make 
Olympia  a  holy  city  ;  while  encompassing  the  temple 
of  Zeus  was  the  sacred  grove  or  Altis,  with  countless 
statues  consecrated  within  its  enclosure  by  the  piety 
of  the  Greeks.  It  had  long  been  known  that  the  pagan 
emperors  had  drawn  largely  from  this  treasury  of  works 
of  art,  and  that  the  Christian  emperors,  Constantine 
and  Theodosius,  had  robbed  Olympia  for  the  sake 
of  Constantinople.  It  was  hoped  that  the  sculptural 
decorations  of  the  temple  might  be  uncovered  from 
beneath  the  alluvial  deposits  of  the  Alpheus,  which 
had  gradually  accumulated  with  the  lapse  of  time. 
In  1831,  the  French  expedition  to  the  Morea  began 
excavations  which,  though  too  soon  broken  off, 
brought  part  of  the  temple  of  Zeus  to  light."  The 

*  Dubois  and  Abel  Blouet  directed  the  excavations. 
M 


178  <;KKKK  AK<  H.I-:<>I.<M;Y. 

work  was  again  taken  up  by  the  German  Government, 
and  the  seasons  of  excavations  that  have  followed 
since  1875  have  not  ceased  to  be  fruitful.*  In  the 
museum  at  Olympia,  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Cronius,  we 
to-day  possess  a  noteworthy  part  of  the  marbles  that 
adorned  the  temple  ;  with  them  arc  preserved  many 
fragments  of  all  kinds,  and  many  inscriptions. 

The  simple,  though  definite,  descriptions  of 
Pausanias  make  known  to  us  the  subjects  represented 
on  different  parts  of  the  edifice.  The  metopes,  twelve 
in  number,  portrayed  the  labours  of  Heracles,  and 
were  placed  under  the  colonnade  above  the  doors  of 
the  pronaos  and  of  the  opisthoclomos.  Two  magnifi- 
cent fragments  of  the  metopes  were  discovered  by  the 
French  expedition  to  the  Morca,  and  arc  now  in  the 
Louvrc.f  The  most  beautiful,  that  of  Heracles  con- 
quering the  Cretan  bull,  is  a  powerful  composition  ; 
the  hair  and  the  beard  are  treated  in  masses ;  the 
modelling  of  the  flesh  is  firm,  and  the  lines  of  the 
group  arc  bold.  The  second,  where  .Athena,  seated, 
looks  upon  the  struggle  of  the  hero  with  the  Stym- 
phalian  birds,  shows  the  same  characteristics,  though 
in  a  lesser  degree.  The  German  excavations  led  to 
the  discovery  of  a  large  number  of  fragments  from 
the  metopes,  which  have  supplemented  the  metopes 

*  The  excavations  have  been  conducted,  under  the  chief  direction 
of  E.  Curtius,  by  IJiitticher,  Adler,  Hirschfeld,  and  G.  Treu.  Com- 
pare Australia ngiiH  aits  Olyinf>ia,  lierlin,  1879 — iSSl,  with  photographic 
eproductions  ;  also  Kotticher,  Olympia,  1883  ;  and  Overbeck,  Gricchischc 
riastik,  3rd  ed.,  1881— 8j. 

t  The  excavations  of  JKibois  ar.d  IJlouet  also  brought  to  light  some 
other  fragments,  the  most  important  of  which  is  the  Nemean  lion. 


SCULPTURE.  179 

of  the    Louvre,  showing    us    in    part   at   least   other 


scenes  from  the  labours  of  Heracles :   the  conflict  of 
the  hero  with  the  Nemean  lion,  the  Lernean  Hydra, 
M  2 


i  So  (;RKKK  AKCH.I:OI.OC;V. 

(jeryon,  the  Erymanthian  hoar,  etc.'  That  which 
we  reproduce  (Fig.  56)  shows  Heracles,  aided  by  one 
of  the  1  lespcridaj,  sustaining  the  world  upon  his 
shoulders,  while  Atlas  presents  to  him  the  golden 
apples  of  the  IIcsperid;e.  Though  with  very  realistic 
qualities,  the  style  of  the  metopes  is  not  altogether 
free  from  the  conventionalism  of  archaic  sculpture  ; 
the  attitudes  of  the  figures  and  the  execution  of  the 
draperies  indicate  a  date  anterior  to  that  of  the 
metopes  of  the  Parthenon.  It  is  very  probable  that 
these  arc  the  work  of  Pcloponnesian  artists,  cm- 
ployed  for  the  decoration  of  the  temple  ;  for,  form- 
ing part  of  the  edifice,  these  metopes  must  have  been 
executed  at  the  same  time  with  it,  before  the  arrival 
of  the  Athenian  masters  who  laboured  at  Olympia. 
It  is  by  no  means  a  mere  hypothesis  to  place  their 
date  a  little  before  the  sculptures  of  the  Thcscum. 

The  metopes  arc  the  work  of  unknown  masters, 
but  tradition  preserved  at  Olympia  the  names  of  the 
artists  of  the  pcdimental  sculptures.  Pausanias  took 
pains  to  note  that  the  eastern  pediment  was  the  work 
of  Pa:onius,  born  in  Thrace,  at  Mcndc  on  the  Ilcbrus, 
a  colony  from  Asiatic  Ionia.  Remaining  in  Olympia 
after  the  death  of  Phcidias,  he  was  entrusted,  after 
compctitory  trial,  with  the  execution  of  the  acrotcria 
of  the  temple,  i.e.,  the  gilded  Nike  which  surmounted 


*  We  shall  be  in  a  better  position  to  judge  of  the  importance  of 
these  discoveries  when  the  work  of  reconstructing  the  metopes,  under 
the  direction  of  Treu,  shall  have  been  completed.  Compare  the 
pamphlet  which  serves  as  a  guide  to  the  casts  from  Olympia  in  Berlin, 
Die  Abgiisse  dcr  in  Olympia  ausgegrabcncn  Bildiccrkc,  1880. 


SCULPTURE. 


iSl 


it  and  the  two  great  vases  at  its  extremities  (between 
430  B.C.  and  422  B.C.).    He  was  still  living  at  Olympia, 


HERACLES,    ATLAS,    AND    ONE 
THE  HESPERID/E. 

(Metope  of  Olympia.) 


when  the  Messenians,  after  the  victory  at  Sphactcria, 
ordered    of  him    a    statue    of   Nike,  which,  with    an 


l82  GKKF.K   AKCI1.KOLOGY. 

inscription  at  its  base,  has  been  found  in  the  exca- 
vations.* 

The  body  is  thrown  forward,  outlined  beneath 
folds  of  drapery  blown  by  the  wind.  It  is  the 
work  of  a  master  full  of  fire,  inspired  by  living  reality, 
who  has  entirely  escaped  from  the  influence  of  the 
schools.  His  qualities  are  distinctly  the  opposite  of 
those  of  the  Attic  school.  Pojonius  appears  as  the 
freest  and  most  individual  representative  of  Pelo- 
ponncsian  art ;  he  reveals  the  astonishing  freedom  of 
Greek  genius  at  its  epoch  of  perfection  ;  at  the  same 
time  he  acquaints  us  the  better  with  the  Pelopon- 
ncsian  masters,  of  whom  Pheidias  was  a  pupil.  He 
explains  to  us  one  side  of  the  genius  of  Pheidias, 
that  which  passed  beyond  the  somewhat  narrowing 
limitations  of  Attic  tradition. 

The  eastern  pediment  represents  Pelops  making 
ready  to  contend  with  (Knomaus  in  the  chariot  race 
which  the  king  of  Pisa  required  of  all  the  suitors  of  his 
daughter,  and  in  which  Pelops  was  the  victor.  The  two 
contestants  and  their  attendants  form  two  groups,  be- 
tween which  stands  Zeus,  judge  of  the  contest,  an  erect 
figure  occupying  the  centre  of  the  pediment.  On  the 
right  Hippodameia  and  Pelops,  Sphajrus,  the  esquire 
of  Pelops,  with  four  horses,  two  servants  seated,  and 
in  the  corner  the  river  Alpheus  reclining  ;  on  the  left, 
CKnomaus,  his  wife  Stcrope,  his  charioteer  Myrtilus, 

*  "The  Messcnians  and  Naupaclianshave  consecrated  this  statue  (o 
Olympian  Zeus,  as  a  tenth  of  the  booty  captured  from  the  enemy. 
Pa-onius  of  Mende  made  it,  and  for  the.  acroteria  placed  upon  the 
temple  he  won  the  prize."  [Cf.  Hicks,  Gicck  Hist.  Jnsc.,  1882,  p.  81.] 


SCULPTURE.  183 

his  horses,  a  servant,  a  young  maiden,  and  the  figure 
of  the  river  Cladeus.  We  find  here  again  those  con- 
ditions of  absolute  parallelism  which  assert  themselves 
in  the  composition  of  the  pediment,  and  the  seated 
or  reclining  attitudes,  in  which  the  several  figures  arc 
placed,  as  required  by  the  triangular  shape  of  the 
pediment.  The  principal  figures  rescued  by  the  exca- 
vations are  much  mutilated.  There  is  a  concurrence 
in  recognising  in  some  superb  fragments  the  powerful 
torso  of  Zeus,  the  standing  figure  of  Pelops,  with 
a  haughty  bearing,  and  Hippodameia  clad  in  an 
ample  Dorian  peplus,  with  heavy  straight  folds. 
The  subordinate  figures  are  better  preserved  ;  one 
of  the  servants  of  Pelops  in  a  crouching  position, 
and  the  kneeling  charioteer  of  Pelops,  are  almost 
uninjured,  and  have  attitudes  at  once  natural  and 
plastic.  The  figures  in  the  corners  may  also  be 
recognised,  the  Alpheus  and  the  Cladeus.  The 
former,  resting  upon  his  elbow,  seems  to  watch  the 
preparations  for  the  contest ;  the  modelling  of  the 
body  is  gentle,  its  outlines  are  not  strongly  marked. 
In  the  execution  of  the  Cladeus,  however,  the  figure 
is  energetically  rendered,  and  in  the  swell  of  the 
tense  muscles  and  in  the  firmness  of  its  contours 
is  to  be  recognised  the  chisel  of  a  powerful  master. 
We  give  (Fig.  57)  the  head  of  an  old  man  who  is 
seated,  without  doubt  one  of  the  servants  of  Pelops. 
His  head  is  held  erect,  and  he  looks  forward.  There 
are  few  Greek  monuments  where  the  feeling  of  actual 
life  shines  forth  more  intensely  than  here ;  details 
taken  from  life  are  not  disregarded — the  baldness,  the 


184  C.RKKK    ARCH.l.OI.OCV. 

wrinkled  forehead,  the  humble  and  submissive  expres- 
sion. The  details  of  all  these  parts  taken  together 
arc  of  rapid  and  vigorous  execution,  with  occasional 
striking  evidences  of  carelessness.  Thus,  the  backs 
of  several  statues  are  entirely  unfinished  ;  it  seems  as 
if  work  was  carried  on  in  great  haste,  under  the  stress 
of  time.  It  is  a  question  whether  the  style  of  these 
marbles  permits  us  actually  to  attribute  the  eastern 
pediment  to  Pajonius.  It  is  difficult  not  to  note  the 
profound  difference  between  these  marbles  and  the 
Nike,  an  authentic  work  of  the  master.  The  art  of 
the  eastern  pediment  is  rude,  and  inferior  to  that  of 
the  Nike.  In  order  to  bring  into  accord  the  testimony 
of  Pausanias  with  that  of  the  marbles,  we  must  choose 
between  several  solutions,  the  most  probable  of  which 
seems  that  the  pediments  were  executed  according  to 
the  designs  of  Pajonius  by  artists  of  Elis  whose  talents 
were  very  unequal. 

The  same  problem  presents  itself  in  the  western 
pediment,  which  Olympic  tradition,  preserved  by 
ancient  writers,  assigns  formally  to  Alcamcncs.  The 
subject  is  the  battle  of  the  Centaurs  and  Lapithx  at 
the  wedding  of  Pcirithoiis,  a  subject  frequently  treated. 
We  arc  aware  how  few  were  the  innovations  as  to 
subjects  made  by  the  masters  of  the  best  epoch. 
Pausanias  has  described  this  pediment  less  completely 
than  the  eastern  pediment.  In  the  centre  is  Peirithous; 
at  the  left  is  Eurytion,  who  has  just  seized  Dcidameia, 
and  "Census  bringing  aid  to  Pcirithoiis;  on  the  other 
side  Theseus  is  striking  Centaurs  with  his  axe;  among 
the  Centaurs,  one  is  carrying  away  a  young  girl, 


SCULPTURE. 


I85 


another  a  boy  of  rare  beauty."*  There  \vcre  twenty- 
one  figures  in  the  scene;  the  excavations  have  brought 
to  light  fragments  of  all  these  figures,  which  have 


FlG.    57.— HEAD   OF   SEATED   OLD   MAN. 
(Eastern  Pediment  at  Olympia.) 

been  skilfully  restored  by  Trcu.  The  central  group 
of  the  whole  composition  is  made  up  of  seven  persons : 
in  the  middle  of  the  pediment,  standing  erect,  is 
Apollo,  who  with  arms  extended  dominates  the 

*  Pausanias,  v.   10,  8. 


186  CRMKK    AK<  H.I.OUMJV. 

whole;  his  torso  is  of  rare  elegance,  anil  the  head, 
with  hair  curled  in  the  archaic  style,  is  charming  in  its 
youthful  expression.  On  the  left  comes  first  the 
Centaur  Kurytion  seizing  Dcidamcia,  who  defends 
herself  against  her  ravisher.  Pciritholis,  following  next, 
is  rescuing  his  bride.  To  the  right  of  .Apollo,  from 
the  spectator's  point  of  view,  a  Centaur  has  seized 
a  young  maiden  with  a  brutal  movement,  who,  her 
charming  face  preserving  a  calm  expression  in  the 
midst  of  her  danger,  is  struggling  in  his  arms. 
Theseus,  of  whom  only  fragments  remain,  is  swinging 
his  axe  to  save  the  young  Greek  maiden.  On  cither 
side  of  the  central  group  the  subordinate  groups 
mutually  correspond  in  accordance  with  the  laws 
of  symmetry.  At  the  spectator's  left  is  one  of  the 
young  Lapitha:  (Fig.  58)  struggling  with  a  Centaur  ; 
then,  a  woman  kneeling,  whose  hair  is  clutched  by  a 
Centaur  ;  a  Greek,  who  seems  to  be  rising  in  order  to 
join  in  the  fray;  an  old  woman  greatly  terrified,  who 
looks  upon  the  scene  with  horror;  and,  finally,  a  nymph 
extended  in  the  corner  of  the  pediment.  In  the 
portion  to  the  right  is  placed  a  group  consisting  of  a 
Centaur  carrying  off  a  young  boy,  a  woman  in  a  Cen- 
taur's clutch,  a  Greek  warrior  armed  with  a  sword, 
and,  finally,  under  the  lowest  part  of  the  coping,  a 
waiting-woman  and  a  nymph,  who  correspond  to  the 
figures  in  the  other  corner. 

Nothing  can  be  more  skilful  than  the  composition 
of  this  pediment ;  the  whole  space  is  occupied  with 
works  of  finished  art,  and  the  figures  have  a  life  and 
movement  that  give  to  the  whole  a  dramatic  effect. 


SCULPTURE.  187 

The  style  of  these  marbles  is  not  less  surprising  than 


G^    58. — ONE   OF   THE   LAPITH/E. 

Western  Pediment  of  Olympia.) 


that  of  the  eastern  pediment,  to    which    it    bears  a 


188  (1KKKK    AKCH.K(>I,0(;Y. 

remarkable  resemblance  ;  the  same  rapid  and  care- 
less work,  the  same  inaccuracies,  which  are  inexplic- 
able if  the  hand  of  Alcamenes  sculptured  these  figures. 
I  low  can  it  be  admitted  that  a  rival  of  Phcidias  could 
have  modelled  these  feeble  draperies,  under  which  it 
is  impossible  to  perceive  the  forms  of  the  both',  or 
these  Centaurs,  with  their  extraordinary  anatomy  ? 
It  must  have  been  that  the  master  merely  designed 
the  scene,  and  left  the  execution  of  it  to  the  same 
artists  who  sculptured  the  eastern  pediment.  This 
supposition  explains  at  least  two  incontestable  facts — 
the  resemblance  in  style  between  the  two  pediments, 
and  the  inequality  of  workmanship,  as  contrasted  with 
the  skilful  art  in  the  compositions. 

The  JMarbles  of  PJiigalia. — Attic  influence  is  once 
more  apparent  in  the  marbles  found  at  Phigalia.  These 
marbles  form  the  frieze  of  the  temple  of  Apollo  Kpi- 
curius,  erected  in  430 B.C.  (Olympiad  LXXXVII.  3)  by 
Ictinus,  architect  of  the  Parthenon.  Pointed  out  in  1/65 
by  Bucher,  a  Frenchman,  the  temple  was  excavated  in 
1812  by  the  archaeologists  who  had  discovered  the  mar- 
bles of  ^Egina,  and  the  sculptures,  bought  by  the  Prince 
Regent  of  England,  now  enrich  the  British  Museum. 
The  frieze  represents  a  double  subject :  the  conflict 
between  the  Lapithae  and  the  Centaurs,  and  the  war 
of  the  Athenians  and  the  Amazons.  It  is  a  matter 
of  doubt  whether  this  work  is  from  the  hand  of  an 
Athenian  artist,  introduced  by  Ictinus,  or  whether  it 
was  executed  on  the  spot  by  a  local  sculptor.  The 
most  probable  conjecture  is  that  the  composition 
alone  is  due  to  an  Athenian,  to  which  theory  the 


SCULPTURE.  189 

mediocre  execution  gives  additional  strength,  In  its 
style  the  composition  attempts  by  a  certain  nicety  of 
execution  to  give  freshness  to  a  subject  already  some- 
what worn  out.  Skilful  as  is  the  arrangement  of 
some  of  the  figures,  there  arc  traces  of  false  taste  in 
the  details  ;  the  violent  and  contorted  attitudes  of 
the  Amazons,  the  singular  movements  of  the  Cen- 
taurs, who  kick  and  bite  at  the  same  time,  are  more 
ambitious  than  dramatically  effective.  We  seem  to 
have  before  our  eyes  the  work  of  a  provincial  artist, 
who  wished  to  improve  upon  the  Athenian  masters. 

§    6.    SCHOOL   OF    ARGOS. — POLYCLEITUS. 

At  another  locality  in  Peloponnesus,  the  Argive 
Polycleitus  was  continuing  the  traditions  of  the  school 
of  Argos,  from  which  that  of  Sicyon  must  not  be 
separated  ;  the  Sicyonian  sculptors,  in  fact,  studied  at 
Argos,  and  then  returned  to  their  native  city.  Poly- 
cleitus, born  about  the  seventy-fourth  Olympiad  (482 
B.C. — 478  B.C.),  was  but  a  few  years  younger  than 
Pheidias,  and,  like  him,  was  a  pupil  of  the  Argive 
Ageladas.  A  list  of  his  works  that  may  be  drawn 
up  from  the  ancient  writers  shows  us  that  he  bor- 
rowed his  subjects  from  religious  and  heroic  cycles  ; 
he  also  continued  the  tradition  of  the  Peloponnesian 
schools  in  executing  statues  of  athletes  for  Olympia. 
The  Hcraeum  of  Argos  possessed  one  of  his  chief 
works,  the  famous  statue  of  Hera,  in  which  he  fixed, 
as  it  were,  the  classic  type  of  that  goddess.  The 
figure,  made  of  gold  and  ivory,  was  seated  upon  a 


<;KF.I:K  ARCII.T.OI.OC.V. 


throne,  and  wore  a  crown,  on  which  were  represented 
the  Charitcs  and  the  Seasons  ;  in  one  hand  the  god- 
dess held  a  pomegranate,  and  in  the  other  a  sceptre, 
surmounted  by  a  cuckoo.  The  principal  features  of 
the  type  thus  created  by  Polycleitus  are  found  on  the 
beautiful  coins  of  Argos,  where  is  to  be  seen  the 
crowned  head  of  Hera,  but  above  all 
in  the  magnificent  colossal  bust  of 
the  Villa  Ludovisi,  at  Rome. 

At   Ephesus   was   to    be  seen  the 
statue  of    an    Amazon,    the    work  of 
Polyclcitus.     The  Kphesians,  on  com- 
paring   it   with  similar    statues  made 
PIG.  59.—  HERA,     by  other    masters,    gave    it  the    first 

(From  a  Coin  of  ,         .  -   ,,.      .  .. 

Argos.)  place  ;  the  Amazon  of  1  heidias  came 

next,  then  the  statues  by  Crcsilas* 
of  Cydonia,  and  by  Phradmon.  We  know  nothing  of 
the  Cancphori  of  Polyclcitus,  nor  of  the  group  repre- 
senting two  boys  playing  with  knucklebones  (astra- 
galizontes),  which  were  transported  to  Rome.  But 
the  beautiful  statue  of  the  Villa  Farncsc,  which 
represents  a  young  man  binding  a  fillet  about  his 
head,  is  undoubtedly  a  copy  of  the  Diadumenus  of 
Polycleitus,  also  reproduced  in  the  bron/c  figured  in 
our  text  (Fig.  60).  f  The  style  is  of  exquisite  refine- 
ment ;  the  hair  is  treated  in  irregular  curls.  It  is 
known  that  at  this  point  the  Argive  master  broke 

*  The  Amazon  of  the  Lansclowne  collection,  in  lierkcley  Square, 
London,  is,  perhaps,  a  copy  of  the  work  of  Cresilas. 

t  Numerous  replicas  of  this  statue  are  in  existence,  among  others 
the  Vaison  statue  in  the  British  Museum. 


FlG.  60.  — COPY  OF  THE  DIADUMENUS  OF  POLYCLEITUS. 

(Bronze  of  the  Bibliotheque  Nationale   Paris.) 


19-  (;RKI:K  .\KCII.I:<>I.(><;Y. 

with   the   traditions  of  archaic  sculpture,  which   were 
still  followed  by  his  contemporaries. 

.Ancient  criticism  declared  that  "  no  one  surpassed 
Polycleitus  in  refinement  of  detail."*  Perfection  in 
execution  was  in  fact  the  supreme  concern  of  the 
Argivc-Sicyonian  school,  and  Polycleitus  attained  it  in 
a  rather  restricted  range  of  subjects.  For  him  youth 
was  the  inseparable  condition  of  beauty,  and  he  seems 
to  have  always  addressed  himself  to  subjects  present- 
ing youth.  "  Polycleitus,"  adds  Ouintilian,  "  shrank 
from  the  representation  of  mature  ago,  and  never 
dared  go  beyond  that  of  beardless  youth. "t  Perfect 
knowledge  of  the  human  bod}',  and  perfect  accu- 
racy in  detail,  were  the  characteristic  features  of 
the  genius  of  Polycleitus.  He  wrote  a  treatise 
on  the  proportions  of  the  parts  of  the  bod}',  and 
exemplified  his  theory  in  the  celebrated  statue  of 
the  Doryphorus.  It  is  difficult  to  determine  exactly 
the  proportions  fixed  in  his  canon,  which  served 
as  the  rule  to  the  time  of  Lysippus,  and  may  be 
studied  in  the  replicas  of  Naples,  of  Florence,  and 
of  the  Vatican.  The  description  of  Lucian  is  vague 
enough  :  "In  the  body  we  must  conform  to  the 
rule  of  Polycleitus  ;  it  must  be  neither  too  tall  and 
long  beyond  proportion,  nor  of  a  stature  too  short, 
resembling  that  of  a  dwarf,  but  of  medium  and  appro- 
priate height."^:  This  was  something  intermediate, 
a  transition  from  the  stunted  and  massive  forms  of 

*  Ouintilinn,  hist.  Or.,  xii.  10. 

t  Quintilian,  id.   ib. 

+  Lucian,  DC  Saltatione,  75- 


SCULPTURE.  193 

archaic  Doric  art  to  the  more  slender  type  caused  to 
prevail  by  Lysippus.  In  a  study  upon  the  Dory- 
pliorus  of  Naples,  E.  Guillaume  thus  speaks  of  the 
meaning  of  the  canon  of  Polycleitus  :  "  It  was  the 
summing-up,  as  it  were,  of  a  past  school,  and  not  the 
point  of  departure  for  a  new  school.  At  this  time 
Dorian  art  attains  its  perfection,  both  in  its  buildings 
and  in  the  sculptural  representation  of  man.  Many 
years  later,  after  having  thus  realised  an  ideal  in 
which  energy  and  force  are  dominant,  the  Greeks  un- 
dertook consciously  to  seek  an  ideal  of  pure  beauty 
and  elegance."* 

The  influence  of  Polycleitus  upon  the  schools  01 
Sicyon  and  of  Argos  was  very  great.  His  pupils 
remained  faithful  to  his  rules,  or  even  went  beyond 
them.  It  is  thus  that  the  Discobolus  of  Naucydes,  the 
Argive,  a  copy  of  which  has  sometimes  been  recog- 
nised in  a  statue  in  the  Vatican,  had  undoubtedly 
the  same  quietness  of  attitude  that  characterised  the 
style  of  Polycleitus.  His  other  disciples,  Alyppus 
and  Polycleitus  the  younger,  are  known  to  us  only 
from  the  statements  of  ancient  writers. 

It  has  been  observed  that  Greek  art,  at  its  best 
period,  offered  an  infinite  variety.  It  is  impossible  to 
sum  it  up  in  a  sentence,  which  would  necessarily 
be  commonplace  and  restricted  ;  the  only  way  to 
become  familiar  with  it  is  to  study  it  according  to  the 
schools,  and  thus  to  ascertain  the  profound  differences 
that  separated  one  school  from  another. 


*  Doryphorus,  in  Rayet,  Man.  dc  fArt  antique,  36  livraison. 


CHAPTER    V. 

FIFTH    I'KRIOD. 

TO    TJ1K    AI.KX  AN  DRINK    ACK. 

KROM    TIIK    NINKTY-S1XTH    TO    TIIK    ()\K    HUNDkKD    AND 
TWENTIETH     OLYMPIAD    (396    II. C.  —  292     I',.C.) 


THK  fourth  century  n.C.  bears  but  a  slight  resem- 
blance to  the  fifth  century  i;.c.  To  an  age  of  faith 
and  belief  succeeds  a  period  of  scepticism  ;  the  severe 
dignity,  the  seriousness  of  earlier  Greek  art,  gives  place 
to  a  more  sensuous  taste.  In  the  fifth  century  i;.(.'. 
art  was  pre-eminently  religious.  Though  in  the  crea- 
tion of  divine  types  in  art  it  drew  its  inspiration  from 
the  living  human  form,  it  was  only  to  put  reality  to  the 
service  of  a  higher  conception  of  beauty  ;  gods  were 
in  the  likeness  of  men,  but  it  was  the  most  beautiful 
likeness  possible.  The  fourth  century  n.C.,  however, 
humanised  the  types  of  the  divinities  ;  it  caused  the 
gods  of  Olympus  to  come  down  to  earth  and  to  share 
the  passions  of  humanity  ;  art  became  more  familiar; 
it  detached  itself  from  religion  in  order  to  find  in  real 
life  an  individual  and  personal  character.  Already 
at  the  close  of  the  preceding  period  Callimachus 
had  won  the  epithet  of  Kararij^Lre^vo^  from  his 
excessive  refinements.  Demetrius  of  Athens  carried 


SCULPTURE.  195 

his  realism  so  far  that  Lucian  names  him  "the  maker 
of  men  (avdpwTroTroios),  and  not  the  maker  of  statues  of 
men  (avSpiavTOTroio^."  The  rhetorician  of  Samosata 
describes  as  follows  one  of  his  statues  :  "  Hast  thou 
not  seen  near  the  stream  a  statue  with  prominent 
belly,  bald  head,  half  nude,  with  thin  beard  appa- 
rently blown  by  the  wind,  and  veins  standing  out  as 
upon  a  living  person  ?  That  is  Pclichus,  the  Corinthian 
general."* 

It  was  chiefly  in  the  Attic  school  and  in  that  of 
Faros  that  this  passion  for  expressing  the  intensest 
and  most  personal  sentiments  in  art  became  especially 
marked.  The  most  brilliant  representatives  of  this 
school  are  two  masters,  almost  contemporaries,  Scopas 
and  Praxiteles. 


The  two  extreme  dates  that  limit  the  period  o  f 
the  activity  of  Scopas,  who  was  born  at  Paros, 
are  the  burning  of  the  temple  of  Athena  Alea  at 
Tegea  (Olympiad  xcvi.  2,  395  B.C.),  which  Scopas 
rebuilt,  and  the  death  of  Mausolus  (Olympiad  evil. 
2,  351  B.C.),  on  whose  tomb  he  also  worked.  He 
executed  for  the  temple  of  Athena  J  the  two  pedi- 
ments, one  of  which  represented  the  Calydonian 
Boar  Hunt,  the  other  the  combat  between  Achilles 
and  Telephus  on  the  banks  of  the  Ca'icus.  Like 

*  Lucian,  Philofsetid.,  18. 
t  Cf.  Urlichs,  Skopas  Lcbcn  mid  Wcrkc,  1863. 
\  Fragments  of  the  decoration  of  this  temple  have  been  discovered 
in  recent  excavations  at  Piali,  the  ancient  Tegea  (Arch,  Zeitung,  1880). 
N    2 


\<j6  GKMKK    AKCH.KOLOCY. 

the  sculptors  of  the  preceding  generation,  Scopas 
counted  among  his  works  many  statues  of  gods,  an 
Aphrodite Pandcmus  in  Elis,an  Asclcpius  andallygieia 
at  Gortys,  with  others  in  Attiea,  Megara,  Thebes,  Per- 
gamum,  and  elsewhere.  Some  of  his  statues  possess 
a  special  interest,  because  they  bear  witness  to  the  new 
conceptions  that  were  asserting  themselves  in  Greek  art. 
Such  is  the  statue  of  Apollo  Musagetes,  of  which  the 
Vatican  possesses  a  replica.  Apollo  is  now  no  longer 
the  sturdy  Dorian  god,  so  often  treated  by  the  archaic 
masters.  Clad  in  a  long  robe,  the  god  has  an  almost 
feminine  bearing,  and  the  sculptors  succeeding  Scopas 
have  emphasised  his  characteristics  of  elegance  and 
delicate  art.  A  Maenad  tearing  a  kid  was  celebrated 
for  its  spirit  and  for  the  truthfulness  of  its  attitude. 
His  group  of  Eros,  Pothos,  and  Ilimcros,  in  the 
temple  of  Aphrodite  at  Mcgara,  representing  in  a 
plastic  form  the  desires  of  the  soul,  shows  well  from 
what  source  the  artists  of  the  new  school  drew  their 
inspiration.  These  graceful  creations  owe  their 
existence  to  the  analysis  of  the  emotions  of  the 
soul,  and  sculpture  thus  seeks  more  and  more  for 
that  which  shall  move  and  touch  the  feelings. 

This  new  taste  betrays  itself  in  every  form  of  art : 
this  is  the  time  when  in  architecture  the  freer  and 
more  varied  Ionic  order  supplants  the  Doric,  and 
makes  infinite  combinations  possible.  Scopas  as- 
sisted in  the  work  on  the  temple  of  Ephcsus,  and 
adorned  with  sculptures  the  shaft  of  one  of  the  Ionic 

These  marbles  come  from  the  pediments,  and  are  doubtless  from  the 
hand  of  Scopas.  Cf.  Mitth.  d.  deutsch.  hut.  in  At  hoi.,  iSSi. 


SCULPTURE.  197 

columns.*     Mr.  Wood  found  at  Ephcsus  fragments  of 
columns  decorated  in  this  manner.f 

But  we  have  still  other  means  than  replicas 
for  studying  and  appreciating  the  style  of  Scopas. 
The  excavations  of  Mr.  Newton  at  Budrun  have 
exhumed  the  priceless  marbles  of  the  Mausoleum 
of  Halicarnassus,  the  work  of  the  chisel  of  Scopas, 
and  of  his  rivals,  which  can  acquaint  us  at  least  with  the 
style  of  the  contemporary  Attic  school.  Artemisia, 
queen  of  Caria,  widow  of  Mausolus,  had  entrusted 
to  several  artists  the  execution  of  the  tomb  of  her 
husband  :  these  were  Scopas  ;  Leochares  the  Athenian, 
who  had  already  departed  from  the  distinctive  features 
of  the  Attic  school  by  his  taste  for  portraits  ;  J  Bryaxis 
of  Athens;  Timotheus  and  Pythius — the  latter,  assisted 
by  Satyrus,  was  also  the  architect  of  the  Mausoleum. 
Remaining  almost  intact  until  1402,  the  Mausoleum 
repeatedly  furnished  the  materials  for  a  fortress  for 
the  Knights  of  St.  John.  In  1846  the  bas-reliefs  built 
into  the  castle  walls  of  Budrun  were  transported  to 
London,  and  in  1855  Mr.  C.  T.  Newton  discovered 
what  was  left  of  the  mutilated  monument,  fragments 
of  the  frieze,  and  of  the  statues  of  Artemisia  and  of 

*  [This  statement  is  based  on  the  received  text  of  Pliny,  N.H.  xxxvi. 
95,  "  columnar  .  .  ccelatce,  una  a  Scopa."  But  the  true  reading  may 
have  been,  "  columns  .  .  caelate  imo  scapo  "  :  it  is  only  on  the  lower 
part  of  the  shaft  (imo  scapo)  that  these  columns  were  sculptured.] 

t  One  of  these  is  now  in  the  British  Museum. 

\  He  had  represented  several  members  of  one  family  :  Pasicles 
and  others,  as  is  indicated  by  pedestals  with  inscriptions  found  upon 
the  Acropolis.  A  copy  of  his  Ganymede  Carried  away  by  an  Eagle  is 
in  the  Vatican 


198  C.KKKK  AKCH/KOLor.Y. 

Mausolus,  parts  of  the  quadriga  sculptured  by  Pythius, 

of  lions,  and  of  architectural  members.  This  debris 
furnished  Pullan  and  Fergusson  with  the  materials 
and  the  data  for  the  restoration  of  the  Mausoleum,  a 
task  which  each  in  turn  has  attempted. 

The  British  Museum  possesses  the  fragments  of 
lions  which  doubtless  formed  the  decoration  between 
the  columns.  They  are  treated  with  great  skill,  but  in 
the  somewhat  conventionalised  style  which  Greek  art 
observes  in  the  type  of  these  animals.  The  frieze  is 
composed  of  three  distinct  parts,  one  passing  along 
the  sides  of  the  edifice,  another  along  the  entablature 
of  the  portico,  and  the  third  upon  the  substructure. 
The  frieze,  of  which  the  most  important  fragments 
have  been  preserved,*  is  that  representing  the  combat 
of  the  Greeks  and  the  Amazons  ;  of  the  other  friezes, 
in  which  the  conflict  between  the  Greeks  and  the 
Centaurs,  and  chariot  races,  arc  represented,  only  a 
few  fragments  exist.  The  style  is  very  unequal  : 
it  commonly  exhibits  a  certain  affected  striving  after 
violent  movement  and  difficult  attitudes,  which  makes 
these  friezes  resemble  those  at  Phigalia  much  more 
than  the  marbles  of  the  Parthenon.  At  the  same  time 
the  proportions  of  the  figures  arc  slender,  and  the 
flying  draperies  give  them  great  vivacity.  Scopas 
certainly  put  his  hand  to  these  marbles  ;  but  we  must 
probably  look  for  the  most  distinct  evidences  of  his  style 
in  the  more  important  pieces,  such  as  the  fragments 
of  the  group  on  the  substructure  and  of  the  two  colossal 

*  The  larger  part  is  in  the  liritish  Museum  ;    there  is  one  fragment 
at  the  Villa  Negro  in  Genoa. 


SCULPTURE. 


199 


statues,  Artemisia  and  Mausolus.  The  Carian  king 
is  figured  as  if  in  an  apotheosis,  and  his  head,  with 
thick  hair,  betrays  an  interesting  attempt  at  barbaric 
naturalism. 

The  figures  of  the  Mausoleum  give  a  remarkable 
precision  to  the  conception  that  we  may  form  as  to 
the  style  of  Scopas.  It  is  safe  to  ascribe  to  his 


FlG.   6l.  —  FRAGMENT   OF   THE    FRIEZE   OF   THE    MAUSOLEUM 
AT     HALICARNASSUS. 

(British  Museum.) 

school  a  work  which  shows  a  certain  kinship  with  the 
marbles  of  Halicarnassus ;  this  is  the  Victory  found 
in  the  island  of  Samothrace,  now  in  the  Louvre.  It 
surmounts  a  votive  offering  in  the  form  of  the  prow  of 
a  trireme,  consecrated  by  Demetrius  as  a  token  of 
a  naval  victory  won  over  Ptolemy  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  the  island  (306  B.C.).  Holding  in  one  hand  a 
trumpet,  and  in  the  other  a  wooden  cross,  which 
supported  the  trophies,  the  figure  of  Victory  advances 


2OO  C.RKF.K    ARCII/l'OI.OC.V. 

proudly  with  extended  winces  as  if  about  to  soar  in 
flight.  If  the  work  is  not  from  the  hand  of  Scopas, 
it  is  by  one  of  his  pupils  ;  in  it  may  be  discovered 
that  carefulness  of  expression,  that  taste  for  move- 
ment and  for  draperies  blown  by  the  wind,  which  is 
characteristic  of  the  Parian  sculptor. 

§    2.    I'RAXITKLF.S. 

According  to  Vitruvius,  Praxiteles  worked  with 
Scopas  on  the  sculptures  of  the  Mausoleum.  lie  thus 
began  the  most  brilliant  period  of  his  career  about 
357  B.C.  ;  Pliny,  however,  gives  Olym.  civ.  (364  KG.) 
as  the  date  when  Praxiteles  was  at  his  acme.  With- 
out discussing  this  contradictory  evidence,  we  may 
admit  that  the  principal  period  of  the  activity  of 
Praxiteles  was  between  360  B.C.  and  340  B.C.  An 
inscription  from  Thespian,  which  Bocckh  believed  re- 
ferred to  the  great  sculptor,  gives  Athens  as  his 
birthplace  ;  his  sons,  Cephisodotus  and  Timarchus, 
were  Athenian  citi/.ens.  We  know,  moreover,  that 
Praxiteles  lived  in  Athens,  where  his  relations 
with  the  courtesan  Phrync,  his  model,  arc  well 
known. 

Among  the  sculptors  of  the  Attic  school  in  the 
fourth  century  B.C.,  Praxiteles  best  represents  the 
new  spirit.  The  severe  gravity  of  the  old  Dorian 
schools  is  abandoned  ;  art  applies  itself  to  more 
pleasing  subjects,  which  awaken  the  inmost  senti- 
ments and  feelings.  This  period  has  unjustly  been 
called  a  period  of  decadence  ;  it  is  rather  an  epoch 


SCULPTURE.  2OI 

of  development  in  Greek  art,  for  at  no  time  did 
Hellenic  genius  unfold  more  brilliantly  its  exqui- 
site qualities  of  delicacy.  This  is  the  time  when 
the  coroplastcB  of  Tanagra  modelled  their  figurines 
with  so  spirited  and  life-like  an  execution  ;  when  the 
potters  of  Athens  were  decorating,  with  elegant  paint- 
ings, the  masterpieces  of  ceramic  art ;  and  when, 
in  sculpture,  Praxiteles  and  his  school  conceived  their 
charming  types  of  goddesses  and  young  satyrs,  and 
taught  sculpture  above  all  to  seek  grace  and  deli- 
cacy of  form. 

Not  less  than  forty-six  groups  or  statues  executed 
by  Praxiteles  are  mentioned.  This  list  cannot  be  re- 
peated here  ;  we  shall  confine  ourselves  to  works  of 
which  copies  have  been  preserved  to  us.  With  common 
consent,  antiquity  admitted  that  Praxiteles  had  created 
the  type  of  Aphrodite,  in  his  celebrated  statue  for 
Cnidus.  "  Who  gave  a  soul  to  marble  ?  Who  saw  upon 
this  earth  the  Cyprian  goddess  ?  Who  put  into  stone  the 
ardent  desire  for  pleasure  ?  It  was  done  by  Praxiteles. 
Olympus  is  deprived  of  the  Paphian  goddess,  because 
she  has  descended  to  Cnidus."*  The  most  authentic 
testimony  by  which  we  recognise  the  work  of  Prax- 
iteles is  a  medal  of  Cnidus  struck  in  honour  of  Plau- 
tilla  and  Caracalla  ;  it  shows  the  essential  features  of 
the  masterpiece,  as  described  by  Lucian.  The  subject 
was,  furthermore,  repeated  many  times  for  the  cities 
of  Cos,  of  Thespiae,  and  of  Heracleia.  After  Praxiteles 
other  sculptors  took  it  up  in  emulation  ;  the  Venus  of 

*  Anthol.  Planud.  iv.  159.     See  also  Lucian,  I  mag.  4  and  6. 


2O2 


CRKKK    AKCII/KOI.OC.Y. 


the  Capitol,  the  Venus  cli  Medici,  and  ninny  other 
replicas  in  our  museums,  are  derived  from  the  type  so 
happily  conceived  by  Praxiteles.  To  the  cycle  of 
Aphrodite  was  naturally  attached  that  of  Kros  ;  it  was 
here  that  the  Athenian  sculptor  must  have  found  the 
subject  of  the  Kros  of  Parion,  and  of  the  Kros  con- 
secrated by  Phrync  at  Thespia,1.  Praxiteles  repre- 
sented this  god  with  all 
the  features  of  a  youth 
"  in  the  flower  of  his 
age,"  as  may  be  seen 
in  the  beautiful  torso 
of  Centocclle  in  the 
Vatican.  The  Apollo 
Sauroctonus  is  also 
a  new  conception. 
Scopas,  in  his  Apollo 
Musagctcs,  represented 
the  inspired  god,  while 
the  beautiful  youth 
of  Praxiteles,  with  his 

slender  form  and  delicately-modelled  outlines,*  has  all 
the  grace  of  an  Athenian  ephebus.  Praxiteles  was 
inspired  also  by  the  legends  of  the  cycle  of  Dionysus, 
and  delighted  in  treating  the  figures  of  the  laughing 
fauns  and  drunken  satyrs  that  formed  the  cortege  of 
the  god.  Perhaps  we  may  recognise  a  copy  of  his 
faun  pcriboctos  ("  far-famed  ")  in  the  charming  figure  of 
the  Capitoline  Museum,  where  a  young  satyr,  clad  in 


FlC.    62. — APHRODITE. 
(On   a   Modal    of  Cnidus). 


Copies  in  the  Louvre  and  in  the  Vatican. 


FlG.    63. —APOLLO    SAUROCTONUS. 

(Museum  of  the  Louvre. ) 


204  C.RF.F.K    ARCII/KOI.OCIY. 

a  fawn  skin,  leans  carelessly  against  the  trunk  of  a 
tree* 

We  have  thus  far  mentioned  only  replicas.  The 
excavations  at  Olympia  have  brought  to  light  an 
original  work  of  Praxiteles  ;  it  is  the  Hermes 
with  the  infant  Dionysus,  which  was  consecrated 
in  the  ITcrajum  at  Olympia  ;  it  is  of  marble  and  of 
exquisite  workmanship,  and  exhibits  all  the  grace  of 
the  Athenian  master.  The  god  is  represented  with 
all  the  characteristics  of  a  young  man  of  delicate  out- 
line, and  in  his  half-smiling  face,  bent  above  the  tiny 
Dionysus,  who  is  sitting  on  his  left  fore-arm,  we  find 
a  charm  of  expression  hitherto  unknown  in  Greek 
sculpture,  f 

Even  from  this  rapid  review  we  may  observe  the 
spirit  that  inspired  Attic  sculpture  at  this  time.  The 
representation  of  athletes  is  abandoned  ;  among  the 
works  of  Praxiteles  we  note  very  few  subjects  from  real 
life,  such  as  the  warrior  and  his  horse,  a  group  which 
was  to  be  seen  in  the  outer  Ceramicus  in  Athens.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  cycle  of  goddesses,  or  of  young  and 
charming  gods,  kindled  his  inspiration  ;  but  whether 
he  represents  Eros  or  Aphrodite,  or  Dcmctcr  and 
Core,  as  in  the  group  Catagnsa,  it  is,  above  all,  charm 
of  form  and  delicacy  of  expression  that  he  attempts 
to  portray  ;  it  may  be  said,  in  the  words  of  Diodorus 
Siculus,  that  he  excelled,  above  all,  in  rendering  "  into 
stone  emotions  of  the  soul." 

*  Many  other  replicas  are  found  in  the  museums  of  Rome.     [The 
figure  in  the  Capitoline  Museum  is  Hawthorne's  "Marble  Faun."] 
t  Treu,  HcriH cs  mil  Dionysos  Knabcn,  1878. 


SCULPTURE.  205 

Scopas  and  Praxiteles  proceeded  from  a  similar 
school ;  even  at  the  time  of  Pliny  it  was  not  known 
to  which  of  the  two  should  be  attributed  the  statues 
of  the  Niobidae,  which  were  placed  in  the  temple 
of  Apollo  Sosianus  at  Rome,  whither  they  had  been 
brought  from  Asia  Minor,  and  of  which  figures  the 
statues  in  the  museum  in  Florence  are  copies.  Stark, 
contrary  to  the  view  of  Welcker,*  has  proved  that 
this  group  could  not  have  adorned  a  pediment,  but 
that  the  statues  must  have  been  placed  between  the 
columns  of  a  portico,  in  such  a  way  that  they  stood 
out  singly  and  isolated.  Whoever  may  have  been 
their  author,  this  group  belongs  to  the  class  of 
dramatic  sculptures  much  in  vogue  at  that  time. 
In  the  attitudes  of  the  mother  who  sees  her  children 
pierced  by  the  darts  of  Apollo,  in  the  frightened  or 
supplicating  expressions  of  the  young  men  and 
young  girls,  everything  is  designed  to  stir  the 
emotions.  It  is,  as  it  were,  the  final  scene  of  a  tragedy. 

The  sculptures  of  this  epoch,  known  from  the 
Greek  and  Roman  authors  and  from  inscriptions,  are 
very  numerous  ;  the  further  we  advance  in  the  history 
of  sculpture,  the  more  do  the  signatures  left  by 
sculptors  upon  their  marbles  multiply  themselves.  A 
collection  of  these  signatures  has  lately  been  edited  by 

*  Stark,  Niobe  und  die  Niobiden,  1863  ;  Welcker,  A  lie  Denkmaler, 
I.,  p.  223.  Besides  the  statues  in  the  Uffizi,  replicas  of  isolated  figures 
are  in  England,  Russia  (at  Tsarskoe-Selo),  in  the  Capitoline  and 
Chiaramonti  Museums  of  Rome,  at  Aquileja,  and  at  Cologne.  Welcker 
thinks  that  the  group  was  copied  twenty  times.  According  to  Overbeck 
it  was  composed  of  thirteen  figures  including  the  pedagogue,  who  holds 
one  of  the  children. 


K.  Loewy.*  The  artists  more  intimately  connected 
with  the  school  of  Praxiteles  are  Ccphisodotus  the 
younger  and  Timarchus,  sons  of  the  great  sculptor, 
who  frequently  laboured  together,  and  made  portraits 
like  those  of  the  orator  Lycurgus  and  of  Mcnandcr. 

The  monuments  preserved  from  this  period  that 
may  be  dated  with  accuracy  are  not  very  nume- 
rous. It  is  principally  in  bas-reliefs  accompanied  by 
inscriptions  that  we  can  find  hints  as  to  dates. 
Without  being  monuments  of  great  art,  these  bas- 
reliefs  exhibit  the  prevailing  qualities  of  that 
epoch,  and  have  the  advantage  of  being  original 
works.  The  most  important  dated  monument  among 
the  less  interesting  works  of  Athenian  sculpture  in  the 
fourth  century  r..c.  is  the  fric/.c  of  the  choragic 
monument  of  Lysicratcs,  put  in  place  in  the  earlier 
years  of  the  one  hundred  and  eleventh  Olympiad  (335 
B.C. — 334  B.C.).  It  represents  the  defeat  of  the  Tyr- 
rhenian pirates  by  Dionysus,  and  their  metamorphosis 
into  dolphins.  The  style,  though  elegant,  is  distorted, 
and  very  far  removed  from  the  calm  simplicity  that 
marks  bas-reliefs  older  by  a  half  century,  as,  for 
instance,  those  of  the  year  410  B.C.  and  of  375  B.C.,f 
which  were  placed  as  headpieces  above  some  treaties 
of  alliance,  and  reflect  all  the  qualities  of  Athenian 
art  at  the  beginning  of  the  fourth  century  15. c. 

Outside  _Attica   we  find   an   important    group   of 

*  E.  Locwy,  InsclirijUn  dcr  gricch.  Jli/tthaitcr,  1885. 

t  Museum  of  the  Louvre,  and  Museum  of  Athens.  Consult,  in 
regard  to  the  latter,  Bull.  <i£  Coir,  hcllcn.,  II.,  plate  XI I.,  ami  also 
infra,  p.  233. 


SCULPTURE.  207 

sculptures  which  bear  a  strong  resemblance  to  the 
marbles  of  the  Mausoleum,  and  must  be  referred  to 
the  same  school ;  these  are  the  marbles  of  the  tomb 
of  Harpagus,  general  of  Cyrus,  discovered  at  Xanthus, 
in  Asia  Minor,  by  Mr.  Fellows.  The  principal  figures, 
placed  in  the  Lycian  room  of  the  British  Museum,  are 
four  in  number,  and  represent  draped  women  of  life 
size;  the  marine  symbols  carved  on  the  basis  indi- 
cate that  they  are -Nereids.  The  decoration  of  the 
monument  comprises  also  some  smaller  figures,  and 
a  frieze  where  Ionian  hoplites  and  Lycians  in  their 
national  costumes  are  grouped  as  if  engaged  in  combat. 
The  similarity  in  composition  to  that  of  the  marbles 
of  the  Mausoleum  leads  us  to  believe  that  these 
sculptures  proceed  from  a  school  in  Greece  proper. 

To  what  period  and  to  what  school  are  we  to 
assign  the  famous  Venus  de  Milo?  While  it  is 
universally  agreed  that  in  this  marble  of  the  Louvre 
we  recognise  a  masterpiece  of  Greek  art,  few  monu- 
ments have  given  rise  to  more  animated  controversy. 
Several  archaeologists  have  seen  in  it  a  copy  of  a 
work  of  Alcamenes  ;  others,  with  greater  probability, 
have  ascribed  it  to  the  school  of  Scopas.*  The 
fourth  century  B.C.  is  a  time  that  agrees  well  with 

*  The  opinion  according  to  which  the  Venus  de  Milo  is  a  work  of 
Roman  times  is  hardly  tenable.  It  is  supported  only  by  one  fact  : 
there  was  found  at  the  same  time  with  the  statue  an  inscription  of  the 
first  century  B.C.,  with  the  signature  of  a  sculptor  from  Antioch  on  the 
Mreander  :  ['Ayjj]  cravSpos  MrjpiSoy  ['Avr]  tox*vs  d?rb  filaiavSpov  firoi7}(rev. 
Besides,  it  has  not  been  proved  that  this  inscription  belonged  to  the 
statue.  Cf.  Frohner,  Notice  de  la  Sculplurt  antique  du  Louvre  (1869), 
1874,  p.  168  ft. 


20S  CKKKK    AKril.KoUH;Y. 

the  style  of  this  statue,  which  is  at  once  severe 
and  charming,  and  is  impressed  with  an  original  and 
thoroughly  individual  grace.  \Ye  can  hardly  class 
the  Venus  dc  Milo  among  the  more  or  less  successful 
replicas  that  were  multiplied  in  imitation  of  the 
Aphrodite  of  Praxiteles.  The  restoration  of  this  mu- 
tilated statue  has  often  been  attempted  ;  perhaps  the 
goddess  held  an  apple  in  one  hand,  while  with  the 
other  she  supported  the  drapery  which  covered  the 
lower  part  of  her  body.  Ravaisson  thinks  that  it  made 
one  of  a  group  of  Mars  and  Venus,  and  a  long  series 
of  similar  monuments  adds  force  to  his  opinion.* 

§    3.    Till';    ARGIVE-S1CYONIAN    SCHOOL. 

Ill  spite  of  the  new  departure  taken  by  Greek 
sculpture,  the  Argive-Sicyonian  school  under  Ku- 
phranor  and  Lysippus  remained  faithful  to  its  spirit, 
and  continued  to  translate  Nature  into  vigorous  sculp- 
tured forms.  Lysippus  lived  at  Sicyon,  and  the  period 
of  his  most  brilliant  activity  was  between  330  B.C.  and 
320  B.C.  Pliny  estimates  the  number  of  his  statues  at 
five  hundred  ;  it  is  certain  that  he  was  extremely  pro- 
ductive, which  may  be  explained  in  part  when  we 
remember  that  most  of  his  statues  were  in  bron/.e  : 
work  in  the  mould  being  much  more  rapid  than  in 
marble.  Besides  this,  Lysistratus,  brother  of  Lysip- 
pus, had  invented  the  art  of  moulding  in  plaster,  and 
had  furnished  art  with  a  process  that  might  be  used 

*  For  example,  the  Mars  and  Venus  in  the  Villa  Borghese. 


SCULPTURE.  209 

in  modelling  from  a  cast  taken  directly  from  the 
human  face.  This  was  only  a  step  further  in  that 
path  of  realistic  accuracy  in  which  the  school  of 
Sicyon  had  ever  travelled. 

The  works  of  Lysippus  included  statues  of  gods, 
of  heroes,  above  all,  portrait  statues  of  athletes  and 
of  famous  persons  ;  only  one  allegorical  figure  by  him 
has  been  mentioned,  that  of  Kairos,  or  Opportunity, 
which  inspired  Poseidippus  with  a  pretty  epigram, 
translated  by  Ausonius.  By  his  native  bent,  as  well 
as  by  the  tradition  of  his  school,  Lysippus  was 
an  observer  and  a  realist.  He  aimed  at  the  expres- 
sion of  the  individual  type,  especially  in  subjects 
where  he  portrayed  the  beauty  and  vigour  of  the 
human  body.  His  Zeus  of  Tarentum  was  a  colossal 
work,  which  Fabius  Verrucosus  was  unable  to  trans- 
port to  Rome  because  of  its  huge  size. 

The  legends  of  Heracles  furnished  him  with  nume- 
rous subjects  ;  he  represented  the  labours  of  the  hero 
for  the  city  of  Alyzia,  in  Acarnania.  Among  his 
works  were  four  statues  of  Heracles,  which  are  known 
to  us  both  by  descriptions  and  by  copies. 

The  Farnese  Hercules  of  the  Naples  Museum, 
signed  by  Glycon  the  Athenian,  seems  to  be  the 
copy  of  an  original  of  Lysippus.  An  inscription 
designates  as  "  a  work  of  Lysippus,"  i.e.,  a  copy,  a 
statue  of  Heracles  found  on  the  Palatine,  and  taken 
to  Florence  ;  the  hero  is  leaning  upon  his  club  in  a 
pensive  attitude.  But  the  inscription,  which  is  cer- 
tainly modern,  deserves  no  credence.  At  Tarentum 
a  statue  of  Lysippus  shows  Heracles  in  repose,  seated 
o 


210  (IKKKK    ARCII.KOLOCY. 

on  his  lion's  skin,  as  he  is  also  represented  on  an 
antique  gem.  This  statue  was,  many  years  later,  trans- 
ported to  Constantinople,  where  it  decorated  the  Hip- 
podrome. An  epigram  in  the  .Anthology  describes 
the  statue  as  one  in  which  the  hero  is  disarmed  by 
Kros,  a  subject  frequently  used  by  the  engravers  of 
precious  stones,  and  appearing  on  some  gems  from 
Florence. 

Portraits,  in  particular  those  of  Alexander,  formed 
an  important  part  of  the  works  of  Lysippus.  He 
represented  the  King  of  Macedon  "  in  numerous 
statues,  from  his  childhood  up."*  Ancient  writers 
mention  three  principal  ones  where  the  king  is 
figured  :  (i)  with  spear  in  hand  ;  (2)  at  Granicus,  with 
his  friends  and  his  guards,  both  mounted  and  on  foot; 
(3)  hunting  a  lion.  Among  the  portraits  left  us  of 
Alexander,  there  is  not  one  that  may  certainly  be 
recognised  as  a  copy  of  an  original  of  Lysippus  ; 
perhaps  the  statue  in  the  Louvre,  from  Gabii,  where 
Alexander  stands  erect,  with  a  helmet  on  his  head,  is 
a  replica  of  one  of  the  portraits  mentioned. 

The  Museum  of  the  Vatican  possesses  the  copy  of 
the  athlete  with  strigil  (Apoxyomenus),  which  was 
transported  to  Rome,  and  placed  by  M.  Agrippa  be- 
fore his  baths.  We  may  here  better  appreciate  the 
style  of  Lysippus,  and  observe  the  alterations  he  in- 
troduced in  the  canon  of  Polyclcitus.f  The  artist  of 
Sicyon  modified  the  proportions  which  had  prevailed 
since  the  Doryphorus  of  the  Argive  master  ;  he  made 

*  Pliny,  N.H.,  xxxiv.  63. 

t  Cf.  the  notice  by  M.  Collignon  in  Rayet,  Man.  de  fArt  antique. 


SCULPTURE.  211 

the  body  more  slender,  the  head  smaller,  and  intro- 
duced an  extreme  care  in  the  treatment  of  the  hair. 
Tradition  was  ever  powerful  in  the  school  of  Sicyon  ; 
Lysippus  was  the  pupil  of  Polycleitus,  and  his  own 
disciples  strictly  followed  in  his  path.  Daippus, 
Boedas,  and  Euthycratcs,  his  sons,  and  Phanis  and 
Eutychides,  his  pupils,  applied  the  new  canon  intro- 
duced by  their  master,  and  under  the  impulse  given 
by  the  sculptor  of  Sicyon  the  taste  for  colossal  com- 
positions continued  to  prevail  in  the  art  of  the  fol- 
lowing period. 

At  the  same  time  the  character  of  Hellenic  art 
is  about  to  change.  The  knowledge  of  the  schools, 
however  subtle  it  might  be,  could  not  take  the  place 
of  the  bloom  of  youthful  beauty,  which  is  brilliant  in 
works  of  the  fifth  and  fourth  centuries  B.C. ;  the 
period  of  decline  is  at  hand,  and  in  its  attempts  after 
the  magnificent  and  imposing,  Greek  art  more  and 
more  departs  from  the  simplicity  and  sincere  inspira- 
tion which  made  her  preatness. 


O  2 


212 


CHAPTER    VI. 

SIXTH    PKKIOI). 
II  F.LLKNISTIC      ART. 

FROM  THE  ONK  HUNDRED  AND  TWENTIETH  OLYMPIAD  TO 
THE  ROMAN  CONQUEST,  THE  ONE  HUNDRED  AND 
FIFTY-EIGHTH  OLYMPIAD  (292  H.C 146  13. C.) 


ONE  of  the  chief  characteristics  of  this  period  is  the 
dispersion  and  diffusion  of  the  schools.  Art  changes 
its  residence,  as  it  were,  and  Asia  Minor  becomes  the 
centre  of  its  activity.  Sculptors  come  into  the  service 
of  the  Macedonian  dynasties,  which  had  divided  the 
empire  of  Alexander,  and  adorn  the  capitals  of  Asiatic 
sovereigns.  Ancient  writers  have  preserved  to  us 
descriptions  of  famous  festivals  in  these  royal  courts  : 
the  festival  of  Adonis  in  Alexandria  under  Ptolemy  II., 
given  in  honour  of  Arsinoe  ;  that  of  Antiochus  IV. 
Epiphanes.*  Artists  were  put  under  contribution  for 
these  magnificent  solemnities  ;  it  was  necessary  to 
work  rapidly  and  according  to  the  taste  of  the  sove- 
reign. Thus  Greek  art,  without  ceasing  to  be  fruitful, 
is  subjected  to  new  conditions,  among  which  are  to 

*  Theocritus,  Idyl.  xv.  ;  Athenajus,  Dcipn.  v.  96  A  and  194  C. 


SCULPTURE.  213 

be   reckoned    the    individual    tastes   of   its    powerful 
patrons.* 

Three  schools  became  the  most  important  homes 
of  art  in  Asiatic  Greece,  which  had  not  needed  to  wait 
for  the  conquests  of  Alexander  to  become  thoroughly 
impregnated  with  Greek  civilisation  :  these  were  the 
schools  of  Pergamum  in  Mysia,  of  Rhodes,  and  of 
Tralles. 

§    I.  THE    SCHOOL   OF    PERGAMUM. 

The  school  of  Pergamum  had  no  ancient  traditions  ; 
it  was,  in  truth,  only  the  united  company  of  artists 
who  worked  for  the  Attalidae,  the  kings  of  Perga- 
mum ;  the  chief  of  these  were  Isigonus,  Phyromachus, 
Stratonicus,  Antigonus.  and  Niccratus,  author  of  a 
votive  monument  consecrated  at  Dclos  in  honour  of 
the  prince  Philetaerus.  The  artists  of  Pergamum  pre- 
ferred to  treat  subjects  taken  from  the  victories  of  the 
Pergamene  princes,  Attalus  II.,  Eumcnes,  and  Phile- 
taerus, over  the  Galatians,  a  Celtic  people  settled  in 
Asia  Minor,  which  disturbed  Mysia  by  frequent  in- 
vasions. Such  was  the  principal  motive  of  a  monu- 
ment given  by  Attalus  to  Athens,  which  was  placed 
on  the  south-eastern  edge  of  the  Acropolis  above  the 
Dionysiac  Theatre.  The  sculptures  that  decorated  it 
represented  the  Gigantomachia,  the  combat  between 
the  Athenians  and  the  Amazons,  the  battle  of  Mara- 
thon, and  the  defeat  of  the  Galatians  in  Mysia. 

*  Decree  of  Aptera  offering  to  Attalus,  King  of  Pergamum,  "a 
statue  on  foot  or  on  horseback,  according  to  his  choice." — Bull,  de  Con-, 
hellen.,  1879,  p.  425. 


2K|  CKF.KK    AKCII.KOI.OCY. 

According  to  Brunn,  these  four  groups,  including 
about  fifty  figures,  \verc  ranged  in  tiers  upon  a  sub- 
structure formed  of  several  stories,  and  were  copies  of 
sculptures  existing  at  Pcrgamum.  The}'  were  trans- 
ported to  Rome,  and  fragments  of  them  are  scattered 
through  our  museums,  in  Venice,  Naples,  at  the  Vati- 
can, and  in  Paris.*  Some  of  the  figures  represent 
fallen  Gauls  pierced  with  sword  thrusts  ;  others,  Ama- 
zons and  Asiatics,  in  their  national  costume,  defending 
themselves  and  fighting.  The  characteristics  of  the 
composition  show  that  these  groups  were  a  reproduc- 
tion, on  a  smaller  scale,  of  larger  original  works. 
These  smaller  reproductions  were,  however,  from  the 
hand  of  artists  of  Pergamum. 

Two  marbles  of  larger  proportions  certainly  belong 
to  the  same  order  of  subjects,  and  P>runn  does  not 
hesitate  to  regard  them  as  originals.  One  of  them,  in 
the  Capitol  at  Rome,  has  long  been  known  as  the 
Dying  Gladiator,  but  the  twisted  collar  about  the 
neck  of  the  wounded  and  sinking  warrior,  his  long 
hair,  his  moustache,  his  type  of  face,  clearly  indicate 
a  Gaul.  The  group  in  the  Villa  Ludovisi,  wrongly 
styled  Arria  and  Pa^tus,  represents  a  Gaul  thrust- 
ing his  sword  into  his  neck  after  having  slain  his 
wife. 

Until  the  last  few  years  these  marbles  alone  repre- 
sented the  school  of  Pergamum.  Excavations  made 
since  1878  by  Humana  at  Bergama,  on  the  site  of  the 
ancient  Acropolis  of  Pergamum,  have  given  us  a  rich 

*  Benndorf  has  discovered  that  a  statue  in  the  museum   of  Aix 
belongs  to  the  group  of  the  Attalidre. 


SCULPTURE.  215 

series  of  original  works,  which  quite  reconstruct  this 
portion  of  the  history  of  Greek  art.  These  are  the 
sculptures  that  decorated  the  great  altar  dedicated  to 
Zeus  and  to  Athena  by  King  Eumenes  II.  (197  B.C.— 
159  B.C.).* 

This  altar  was  placed  on  an  immense  quadrangular 
substructure  ;  a  flight  of  steps,  cut  deeply  in  one  of 
the  faces  of  the  substructure,  led  to  a  platform,  around 
which  ran  an  Ionic  colonnade  backed  by  a  wall.  The 
altar  was  thus  surrounded  on  three  sides  by  an  enclo- 
sure open  to  the  sky,  forming,  as  it  were,  a  vast  hall. 
Besides  statues  placed  on  the  colonnade,  two  friezes 
composed  the  sculptural  decoration.  One  of  these 
friezes  extended  along  the  inner  wall  of  the  colonnade 
near  the  altar  ;  the  other,  entirely  external,  decorated 
the  faces  of  the  substructure. 

The  former,  which  was  much  the  smaller,  repre- 
sents the  myth  of  Telcphus,  the  national  hero  of  the 
people  of  Pergamum.  In  the  present  state  of  the 
marbles,  it  is  impossible  to  reconstruct  the  composi- 
tion as  a  whole,  t  or  even  to  explain  the  meaning  of 
all  the  scenes  represented.  We  may  recognise,  how- 
ever, with  sufficient  certainty,  some  episodes  in  the 
history  of  Telephus  :  for  instance,  the  scene  where 
workmen  are  preparing  the  skiff  designed  for  Auge, 
the  mother  of  the  hero  ;  the  scene  where  Telephus  is 
suckled  by  a  fawn  in  the  presence  of  his  father 


*  See  Die  Ergebnisse  der  Ausgrabnngcn  zte  Fcrgajnon,  A.  Conze, 
C.  Humann,  R.  Bohn,  etc.  Berlin,  1880—1882. 

f  Conze  has  charge  of  the  restoration  of  the  marbles  of  Pergamum, 
which  are  preserved  in  the  Berlin  Museum. 


2l6  CRKKK    ARCII.KOLOCY. 

Heracles  ;  finally,  that  of  Telcphus  with  the  infant 
Orestes  before  the  domestic  altar  of  Agamemnon. 

The  subject  of  the  Great  Frieze,  which  measures 
eight  feet  in  height,  is  the  Gigantomachia.  This 
vast  composition  extends  around  the  faces  of  the 
great  substructure,  covering  even  the  wall  on  both 
sides  of  the  stairway.  The  marble  facings  diminish 
in  height  as  the  stairs  ascend  ;  thus  Fig.  64  shows 
clearly  the  cuttings  for  the  steps  on  one  of  these 
facings.  The  scene  is  imposing  in  its  effect ;  Olympian 
gods  are  struggling  with  giants,  some  of  whom  have 
serpents'  tails,  while  the  younger  have  the  human  form  ; 
a  furious  combat  is  taking  place  ;  draperies  arc  flying, 
bodies  arc  intertwined,  and  the  serpents  forming 
the  termination  of  the  giants'  thighs  twist  and  unroll 
themselves,  biting  at  the  shields  of  the  gods  with  im- 
potent fury. 

Two  fragments  in  particular  arc  admirable  in  style  : 
those  which  represent  Zeus  and  Athena  struggling  with 
the  giants.  Zeus,  the  upper  part  of  his  body  naked, 
advances  proudly,  having  just  smitten  one  of  his 
adversaries  with  his  thunderbolt ;  his  eagle  is  fighting 
at  his  side,  and  one  of  the  giants  raising  his  arm, 
covered  with  the  skin  of  an  animal,  threatens  the 
sovereign  of  the  gods.  On  the  other  side,  Athena  has 
sci/.ed  a  winged  giant  by  the  hair,  and  drags  him  off 
with  a  rapid  step,  while  a  Victory  is  flying  in  the 
field  of  the  bas-relief  as  if  to  meet  her. 

Are  these  sculptures  the  work  of  Isigonus,  as  we 
might  infer  from  the  fragment  of  an  inscription  found 
in  the  excavations  ?  Whoever  may  have  been  their 


SCULPTURE. 


217 


author,  they  reveal  a  totally  new  style  in  the  history 
of  Greek  sculpture  ;  a  violent,  impetuous  art,  attended 
by  wonderful  dexterity  in  execution.  Nothing  is 
further  removed  from  the  meditative  art  of  the  fifth 


FIG.  64. 

FRAGMENT    OF    THE    GIGANTOMACHIA. 
Great  Frieze  of  the  Altar  of  Pergamum. ) 


century  B.C.,  or  from  the  sensuous  grace  of  the  fourth 
century  B.C. ;  it  exhibits  an  almost  modern  sentiment, 
an  effort  after  the  new  without  following  any  school. 
The  art  of  Pergamum  is  studied  and  skilful,  but  at 
the  same  time  thoroughly  individual  ;  the  wealth  of 
inspiration  in  Greek  genius  is  found  again  in  its  com- 
pleteness, at  once  varied  and  powerful. 


§    2.    T1IF.    SCHOOLS    OF    RHODES    AND    OK    TRALLES. 

The  sculptors  of  the  Rhodian  school,  known  to  us 
from  ancient  writers  and  from  inscriptions,  arc  very 
numerous.  Inscriptions  show  the  threat  favour  in 
which  artists  were  held  among  the  Rhodians,  who 
received  them  with  honour,  and  conferred  upon  them 
the  highest  privileges  of  the  city."*  One  of  these  artists, 
Chares  of  Lindus,  executed  the  colossal  statue  of  the 
sun,  a  gigantic  figure  which  betrays  the  taste  for  the 
imposing  peculiar  to  the  Asiatic  schools.  The  master- 
piece of  the  Rhodian  school  was  the  group  of  Laocoon 
and  his  sons,f  sculptured  by  Athcnodorus  and  Agesan- 
clrus.  This  work,  which  was  much  admired  through  the 
influence  of  Winckclmann  and  his  school,  continued 
the  traditions  of  Lysippus.  The  modelling  of  the 
torsos  is  very  fine,  and  the  knowledge  of  the  nude 
form  is  perfect  ;  the  expression  of  pain,  both  physical 
and  emotional,  is  carried  to  the  extreme.  Laocoon 
contorts  himself  in  most  violent  agonies,  and  his  sons 
gaze  with  horror  upon  their  father.  It  would  be 
difficult  for  sculpture  to  go  further  in  the  representa- 
tion of  suffering.  The  group  of  the  Laocoon  is  the 
basis  of  the  famous  study  of  Lcssing,  in  which  the 
celebrated  German  critic  attempts  to  fix  the  limits  of 
the  arts  of  painting  and  sculpture. 

With  the  school  of  Rhodes  is  closely  connected 
that  of  Trallcs,  known  principally  in  two  artists, 
Apollonius  and  Tauriscus,  authors  of  the  group  styled 


*   Foucart,  Inscriptions  tie  File  tie 

t  Restored  in  modern  times  by  Giovanni  Montorioli. 


SCULPTURE. 


219 


the  Farnese  Bull.*  The  group  represents  the  punish- 
ment inflicted  upon  Dirce  by  the  sons  of  Antiope, 
Amphion  and  Zethus,  in  punishment  for  the  cruel 
treatment  received  by  their  mother.  The  only 
ancient  unrestored  parts  of  this  enormous  group  are 
the  torsos  of  the  two  brothers,  and  the  lower  part  of 
the  body  of  Dirce,  in 
which  may  be  recog- 
nised the  great  skill  of 
the  school ;  the  other 
parts  are  only  the  re- 
storations of  Giovan- 
Battista  della  Porta, 
executed  about  1546. 
The  general  effect  of 
the  ancient  group,  as 
inferred  from  a  cameo 
from  Naples,  from  coins 
of  Nacrasa  and  of  Thy- 
atira,  and  from  ivories 
of  Pompeii,  was  more 

simple ;  the  group  should,  then,  be  placed  in  the 
series  of  estimable  works  where  skill  in  execution 
atones  for  poverty  of  sentiment. 

The  period  of  the  conflicts  preceding  the  capture 
of  Corinth  and  the  final  reduction  of  Greece  to  a 
Roman  province  is  full  of  obscurity.  Pliny  declares 
that  art  was  in  its  decline  after  Olympiad  cxxi.  (296 
B.C.).  About  Olympiad  CLVI.  (156  B.C.),  however,  it 


Fir..  65. 

THE    PUNISHMENT   OF    DIRCE. 

(Imperial  coin  of  Thyatira). 


*  Brought  from  Rhodes  to  Rome  by  Pollio,  and  discovered  there  in 
the  sixteenth  century  by  Pope  Paul  III.  (Farnese). 


220  (1KF.EK   ARCHEOLOGY. 

had  a  sort  of  Renaissance  in  the  Attic  school.  But  it  is 
principally  to  Rome  that  we  should  follow  those  artists 
of  the  new  Athenian  school,  to  whom  we  owe  a  large 
number  of  the  statues  that  adorn  our  museums.  Apol- 
lonius,  son  of  Nestor,  author  of  the  beautiful  Bel- 
vedere Torso  of  the  Vatican  ;  Cleomcnes  of  Athens, 
whose  name  is  affixed  to  the  Venus  di  Medici ;  Gly- 
con,  Salpion,  and  Sosibius,  represent  with  talent  the 
artistic  traditions  of  a  race  that  had  not  yet  ceased 
to  be  wonderfully  endowed  ;  but  these  names  belong 
to  the  history  of  art  under  Roman  domination.  The 
Greeks  as  a  people  no  longer  existed  with  that  public 
and  private  life  which  had  exercised  so  powerful  an 
influence  on  the  development  of  their  genius.  We 
can  no  longer  obtain  from  the  monuments  of  their 
art  that  which  is  of  chief  interest  to  us — the  history  of 
their  ideas  and  sentiments. 


221 

CHAPTER   VII. 

STEL/E   AND   VOTIVE   SCULPTURES. 

IN  this  rapid  survey  of  the  monuments  of  Greek 
sculpture  we  have  considered  the  style  of  the  schools 
chiefly  in  chronological  sequence.  But  this  is  by  no 
means  the  only  aspect  under  which  Greek  marbles 
present  themselves  to  us.  Art,  among  the  Hellenes, 
found  its  place  everywhere  ;  in  private  and  in  religious 
life,  in  political  affairs  as  well  as  in  public  worship 
and  cultus.  The  marbles  are  still  to-day  the  most 
important  monuments  whereby  we  may  understand 
the  religious  conceptions  that  nourished  popular 
beliefs,  the  cultus  of  the  dead,  in  a  word,  all  that 
inward  life  in  which  lived  the  soul  of  the  masses. 
Studied  from  the  point  of  view  of  their  object  and 
classified  by  subjects,  these  marbles  form  an  ex- 
tended series,  the  more  important  of  which  are  the 
following : — 

1.  STEL/E  ON  TOMBS. 

2.  VOTIVE  (ex  void]  SCULPTURES  TO  DIVINITIES. 

3.  HEADINGS  OF  DECREES,  AND  OTHER  MARBLES  RELATING  TO 


POLITICAL  LIFE. 


I.    STELvE    ON   TOMBS. 


Stackelberg,  Grdber  der  Hcllaien,  1837  ;  Pervanoglu,  Dit  Grabstcinc 
der  alten  Griechen,  1865 /.;  A.  Conze,  Ueber  griech.  Grabrehejs,  1872, 
and  Bericht  ilber  d.  vorbcreit.  Schritlc  zur  Gesammtausgabe  der  griech, 
Grabreliefs,  1874  ff. 

Among   the   Greeks    it  was  exceptiona    to  have 
sepulchral  chambers.     A  street  with  tombs  on  either 


222  C.RKF.K    A  KG  1 1.  KG  LOG  V. 

side  took  the  place  of  the  subterranean  necro- 
polis. Thus  at  Athens,  the  roads  in  the  outer 
Ceramicus  were  bordered  with  tombstone  monu- 
ments which  recent  excavations  have  brought  to  our 
knowledge. 

These  sepulchres  were  very  diverse  in  character: 
sometimes  a  cavity  excavated  in  the  rock  and  closed 
with  a  slab  ;  at  other  times  a  stone  sarcophagus,  or  a 
simple  grave  lined  with  tiles. 

The  place  of  burial  was  indicated  by  a  monument, 
the  form  of  which  varied  according  to  the  wealth  of 
the  family  bereaved.  The  most  modest  were  mere 
round  cippi.  A  second  type,  more  ornate,  was  that 
of  an  oblong  stele  decorated  with  rosettes  and  sur- 
mounted by  a  rich  anthcmion,  where  were  spread  out 
the  leaves  of  the  acanthus  and  of  the  palm  ;  an  in- 
scription cut  in  the  marble  gave  the  name  of  the 
dead,  that  of  his  father  and  his  tribe  (Fig.  66). 
Sometimes  the  stele  assumes  the  form  of  a  vase 
decorated  by  reliefs.  The  most  carefully-executed 
and  the  richest  of  the  Attic  stela:  arc  constructed 
in  imitation  of  a  small  edifice,  and  the  bas-relief 
is  enclosed  within  upright  pilasters  and  the  interior 
mouldings  of  a  pediment. 

We  cannot  specify  all  the  types  of  stela:  fol- 
lowed in  Greek  countries;  they  were  of  infinite 
variety  according  to  local  usages.  The  tombs  of  Asia 
Minor  carved  in  rock,  with  actual  facades  like  temples, 
had  nothing  in  common  with  the  elegant  stela:  of 
Attica,  or  with  those  of  Bceotia  and  of  Thrace.  We 
will  restrict  ourselves  to  Attic  stela:,  and  will  indicate 


FIG.    66.— STELE  AT  ATHENS. 


224 


GRKKK  AKCILKOI,CK;Y. 


FIG.  67. 
STELE   FROM   ORCHOMENUS. 


the  principal  motives  fol- 
lowed in  their  sculptural 
decoration. 

77/6'  Dead  and  Jiis 
Family,  —  According  to 
most  ancient  usage,  the 
sculptured  and  painted 
stele  presented  a  likeness 
of  the  departed.  Thus 
the  stele  of  Velanidcza, 
signed  Aristoclcs,  shows 
a  Greek  warrior  in  armour 
(sec  Fig.  41)  ;  on  another, 
found  at  Orchomcnus, 
signed  by  Alxenor,  the 
dead  man,  wearing  a 
chlamys,  is  playing  with 
his  dog.  Accessories  often 
suggested  favourite  occu- 
pations; on  an  archaic  stele 
of  Lyseas,  which  is  painted 
but  not  carved,  the  paint- 
ing upon  the  pedestal 
represents  a  rider  mount- 
ing a  race-horse.  For  a 
long  time  these  figures 
were  executed  in  advance 
of  their  use,  and  offered 
no  individual  features, 
and  were  not  portraits. 
The  inscription  alone  gave 


SCULPTUKK.  225 

the  monument  its  definite  application,  and  the 
attempt  to  reproduce  upon  a  monument  the  features 
of  the  dead  does  not  assert  itself  before  the  Gneco- 
Roman  period.  The  simple  representation  of  the 
dead  is  often  made  complex  by  accessory  figures; 
here  domestic  animals,  there  a  bird;  while  in  order  to 
suggest  the  games  of  the  palaestra  to  which  the 
dead  was  addicted,  a  child  standing  near  holds 
a  flagon  of  oil  and  a  strigil.  More  complete  still 
is  the  representation  of  a  person  surrounded  by 
the  members  of  his  family,  as  in  the  charming  stele  of 
Protonoe,  where  the  young  dead  girl  is  figured  in  the 
midst  of  her  relatives. 

Scenes  from  common  life. — In  order  to  diminish 
the  feeling  of  sadness  at  the  thought  of  death,  the 
Greeks  loved  to  represent  the  dead  in  the  midst  of 
objects  which  had  busied  or  pleased  him  in  life.  Thus 
several  stelae  show  an  Athenian  lady  at  her  toilette, 
with  her  women,  who  hold  before  her  a  jewel-casket ; 
this  is  the  subject  of  the  stele  of  Hegeso  (Fig.  68), 
one  of  the  best  marbles  from  the  Ceramicus.  The 
same  subject  is  treated  on  Athenian  vases  with 
white  background,  but  with  special  details  which 
make  us  understand  the  spirit  of  these  representa- 
tions. Here  the  dead  woman  is  figured  as  if  seated 
in  front  of  the  stele;  it  is  as  if  her  image  had  been 
detached,  in  order  to  restore  her  to  the  living,  and  to 
show  her  engaging  in  familiar  occupations.  To  the 
same  spirit  arc  due  the  figures  of  persons  on  horse- 
back, running,  or  hunting.  At  times  the  motive  is 
in  allusion  to  some  definite  fact,  as  in  the  monu- 
P 


226  CKKKK    AK<'1I.1-:<>LO<;Y. 

mcnt  of  Dcxilcos;  the  representation  of  the  fighting 
knight  calls  to  mind  his  glorious  death  before  the 
walls  of  Corinth.* 

Tlie  Farcivdl. —  In  this  scene  the  dead  receives  the 
farewells  of  his  nearest  relatives,  who  extend  their 
hands  towards  him  with  an  expression  of  sadness.  The 
word  xa^P€  ("farewell")  is  often  added  to  the  inscrip- 
tion, and  expresses  the  sorrow  of  survivors.  The 
meaning  of  this  scene  has  often  been  discussed. 
Ravaisson  believes  that  there  is  to  be  seen  in  it,  in- 
stead of  separation,  the  reunion  of  the  dead  with  his 
family  in  the  other  world. f 

A  person  on  a  rock  ivitJi  a  boat  near  at  Jiand. — The 
best  known  instance  of  this  motive  is  the  stele  of 
Glycon,  in  the  museum  at  Athens  ;  it  doubtless  sug- 
gests a  shipwreck,  or  death  at  sea. 

Burial. — This  scene  is  of  rare  occurrence,  but  the 
specimens  of  it  have  a  great  value,  in  showing  that 
the  Greeks  did  not  avoid  the  representation  of  death, 
and  that  the  subjects  mentioned  above  do  not  neces- 
sarily suggest  scenes  of  the  future  life. 

The  Funeral  Banquet. — This  subject,  which  is  very 
frequent  in  Attica,  is  of  great  interest  in  the  study  of 
funeral  customs.  It  has  several  variations,  but  the 
most  complete  scenes  represent  the  dead  reclining  on 
a  banqueting  couch  ;  before  him  stands  a  three-legged 
table;  he  receives  from  his  relatives  the  food  necessary 

*  Inscription:  "  Dcxileos,  son  of  Lysanias,  of  the  deme  of  Thoricus, 
one  of  the  five  knights  slain  at  Coiinth."     [C/.  Hicks,  Creek 
Hist.  Insc.,  p.  125.] 

t  Le   Monument  de  Myrrhine  in  Gazette  arch. ,  1879. 


H   T   H   C  .A     P    P  0  £  E  N 


FlG.    68.  — STELE    OF    IIEGESO. 

(Ccramicus,  Athens.) 


P    2 


228  <;RI:KK 


to  maintain  the  half-material  life  that  he  lives  in  the 
tomb.  The  scene  is  illustrated  by  the  custom  of 
veKvaia,  actual  funeral  banquets  which,  celebrated  at 
the  tomb,  were  popularly  believed  to  be  of  benefit  to 
the  dead  himself. 

The  scenes  that  we  have  just  indicated  originated 
.in  modes  of  thought  peculiar  to  the  Greeks,  and 
the  commentary  upon  these  thoughts  is  furnished 
rather  by  monuments  than  by  ancient  writers. 
There  arc  other  scenes  arising  from  better  known 
mythological  beliefs,  the  interpretation  of  which  offers 
fewer  difficulties.  Thus  on  one  marble  from  the 
Ccramicus  we  may  sec  Charon  and  his  boat  ; 
on  a  beautiful  vase  decorated  with  reliefs,  Hermes, 
conductor  of  souls,,  is  leading  a  young  girl,  named 
Myrrhinc.* 

Another  scries  shows  the  dead  man  made  a  hero, 
standing  by  his  horse,  and  in  the  field  of  the  stele  a 
serpent,  symbol  of  divine  presence,  coiling  near  a  tree. 
Again  the  stele  has  upon  its  face  representations  of 
mythological  beings,  like  the  Sirens,  muses  of  death, 
and  the  Harpies,  who  carry  away  souls.  Finally,  in 
the  Graco-Roman  period,  when  Oriental  superstitions 
had  gained  general  credence,  tombstone  subjects 
were  drawn  from  the  Dionysiac  cycle.  Bacchic  em- 
blems seem  to  promise  to  the  dead  a  renewal  of  his 

*  Ravaisson,  in  the  article  cited  above,  sees  here  a  reunion  in 
Elysium  represented.  O.  I'enr.dorf,  Millhdl.  dcs  dculsi'h.  arch.  Ins/., 
1878,  believes  that  living  persons  are  to  be  seen  in  it,  filled  with  a  re- 
ligious awe  in  the  presence  of  the  young  Myrrhine,  carried  away  by 
Hermes  I'sychopompus. 


SCULPTURE.  229 

existence  in  a  happy  life,  "in  the  midst  of  the  corn- 


x  H 


pany  of  Bacchus,  of  the  Satyrs,  and  of  the  Naiads."* 

*  Inscription  of  Doxato  ;   Hcuzcy,  Mission  dc  Maddoine,  1864—1878. 


230  CRF.KK    AKCII.r.OLOOY. 

\YhiIe  giving  full  weight  to  tlic  mythological 
allusions,  and  to  the  changes  which  the  types  illus- 
trated have  suffered  in  process  of  time,  the  ruling 
idea  of  these  Greek  stehe  seems  to  be  to  represent  the 
dead  with  that  which  he  loved  in  life.  Apart  from 
the  interest  aroused  by  the  monuments  in  the  study 
of  beliefs,  they  often  commend  themselves  for  their 
exquisite  elegance  of  execution.  The  marbles  of  the 
fourth  century  n.r.  show  how  profoundly  the  great 
schools  of  art  had  made  themselves  felt  even  in 
works  of  minor  importance.  On  the  most  beautiful 
Athenian  stehe  the  excellence  of  the  plastic  form 
and  the  restrained  and  calm  expression  of  sentiment 
arc  well  adapted  to  make  us  understand  what  are  the 
finest  qualities  of  Atticism. 

S  2.    VOTIVE    MARUI.F.S    DEDICATED   TO    DIVINITIES.* 

The  subjects  sculptured  on  votive  marbles  are 
infinite  in  variety.  Hellenic  religion  gave  a  large 
place  to  ceremonies,  to  visible  demonstrations  ;  and 
in  the  religious  life  of  the  Greek  there  was  many 
an  occasion  when  his  devotion  to  a  god  expressed 
itself  in  a  votive  offering — a  marble  slab  ornamented 
with  reliefs,  which  was  dedicated  in  the  temple 
enclosure.  We  cannot  here  enumerate  in  detail  all 
the  representations  figured  on  these  marbles  :  we  will 
restrict  ourselves  to  the  more  important — to  those 
that  have  most  attracted  the  attention  of  archaeo- 
logists. 

*  Stcphnni,  Der  Ausruhemler  Heracles,  1854  ;  Wclckcr,  Altc  Dcnk- 
»iii/t-r,  Vol.  I.,  and  Schone,  Griechischc  Beliefs,  1872. 


232  C.KKF.K    AKCII.r.ol.nC.Y. 

Votive  offerings  to  Asclcpius  and  to  I  lygicia,  the 
divinities  of  health,  form  a  numerous  scries,  lately 
much  enlarged  through  recent  excavations  at  the 
south-east  of  the  Acn>i)olis,  on  the  site  of  ihe  temple 
of  Asclepius.*  These  bas-reliefs,  placed  in  the  temenos 
of  the  temple  here  and  there  in  the  sacred  enclosure, 
represented  varied  scenes  ;  they  may  be  grouped  into 
the  following  classes  : — (i)  of  simple  adoration  ;  (2)  of 
offerings  and  sacrifices  ;  and  (3)  of  banquets.  In  the 
simplest  scene,  the  family  has  just  offered  prayers  to 
Asclepius  and  Hygicia,  whose  figures  arc  of  very  large 
size.  Klscwhcre  the  family  has  just  sacrificed  a  victim 
on  an  altar,  a  sow  or  a  ram,  in  the  presence  of  the 
two  divinities.  The  banquet  scene  is  more  complex  ; 
Asclepius  and  Hygicia  arc  seated  upon  a  couch, 
before  a  table  covered  with  offerings,  while  the  sup- 
pliants arc  facing  thcm.f  This  scene  has  sometimes 
been  identified  with  that  of  the  funeral  banquet,  but 
the  fact  that  similar  marbles  have  been  found  on  the 
site  of  the  temple  of  Asclepius  makes  this  opinion 
untenable. 

Another  series  of  marbles  comprises  votive  offer- 
ings to  Scrapis  and  Isis.  This  class  has  not  always 
been  kept  distinct  from  the  foregoing  ;  but  the  polns 
or  headdress  worn  by  Scrapis  shows  that  some  other 
divinity  than  Asclcpius  is  indicated.  These  marbles 
belong  to  a  late  epoch,  when  purely  Greek  ideas  had 

*  Cf.  P.  Girard,  // '  AscL'fieion  tfAthlnes  ifaprcs  dc  teeen/es 
DeeoHvartes,  iSSo. 

t  The  presence  of  the  horse,  the  head  of  which  appears  at  a  window, 
has  not  yet  been  satisfactorily  explained. 


SCULPTURE.  233 

received  an  admixture  of  Egyptian  beliefs,  and  when 
the  Osiris  of  Egypt  had  become  assimilated,  under 
the  name  of  Serapis,  to  the  Pluto  of  Hellenic  religion. 
Votive  marbles  to  Heracles,  to  Pan,  and  to  the 
Nymphs,  etc.,  arc  less  numerous,  and  an  analysis  of 
their  characteristics  would  carry  us  beyond  the  limits 
set  to  this  sketch. 

§  3.    MARBLES    RELATING    TO    POLITICAL    LIFE.* 

The  political  acts  of  the  Greeks  were  recorded  on 
stelae,  and  often,  above  the  inscription,  was  placed  a 
bas-relief  which  indicated  in  allegorical  form  the  act 
mentioned  in  the  decree.  These  monuments  deserve 
careful  study,  for  they  show  how  the  Greeks  personi- 
fied abstract  entities,  such  as  the  Republic  of  Athens, 
the  Senate,  the  People,  and  even  political  and  admin- 
istrative qualities.  According  to  the  nature  of  the 
decrees,  the  accompanying  headings  of  the  stelai 
may  be  classified  as  follows : — 

i.  Treaties  of  Alliance, — Cities  forming  parties  to 
a  treaty  are  often  represented  by  the  features  of  their 
tutelary  divinities.  On  a  decree  relating  to  an 
alliance  between  Athens  and  Ncapolis,  the  Athenian 
State  is  represented  by  Athena,  and  Neapolis  by 
Artemis  Parthenos,  worshipped  in  that  city  ;  the  two 
goddesses  are  shaking  hands.  In  other  cases,  the 
people  of  Athens  itself,  the  Demos  introduced  upon 
the  dramatic  stage  by  Aristophanes,  is  figured  as  a 

*  Schone,  Griechische  Reliefs  ;  A.  Dumont,  Bull,  de  Corr.  heltiniqiic 
IT.,  1878,  pp.  559-569- 


(;KI:I:K  AKCH/KOLOGY. 


man    wearing    a    mantle  ;    thus    above    a    treaty    of 
alliance  with  Corcvra,  we  see  the  demos   offering  his 


hand  to  the  friendly  city,  personified  in  a  young1 
woman,  while  Athena  presides  over  the  scene. 
(Fig-  7'-} 


SCULPTURE. 


235 


2.  Laudatory  inscriptions  in  Jiononr  of  States  or  of 
individuals. — When  the  Republic  wished  to  reward  a 
citizen  of  a  foreign  city,  it  conferred  upon  him  the 
title  of  proxcnus,  together  with  the  honour  of  a  crown. 


FlG.  ~2. — HEADING    OF   A    DECREE   CONFERRING    PROXENIA. 


This  subject  is  shown  in  a  certain  number  of  bas- 
reliefs,  where  Athena,  wearing  her  helmet  and  aegis, 
is  crowning  the  honoured  person.  These  allegorical 
motives  were  also  treated  in  sculpture  on  a  larger 
scale.  Ancient  writers  mention  a  monumental  group, 


236  GRF.KK    ARCII.V.OLOr.Y. 

representing    the    Demos    of    Athens,    crowned    by 
Byzantium  and  IVrinthus. 

3.  A\Y(>n/s  of  finance. — These  marines  show  princi- 
pally   the    personifications    of    Athena,   and    of  the 
branches  of  the  body  politic.      It   is   not  unusual   to 
find  the   Senate   (J3ou\//)  represented   in  the  likeness 
of  a  woman,  to  whom   a  goddess   offers  her  hand  as 
a  sign  of  satisfaction. 

4.  Accounts    of   liturgies,    magistracies,   etc. — One 
of  the  most  interesting  of  these  reliefs  represents  not 
the  State   nor  the  body  politic,  but  a  moral  quality. 
Here    the    goddess    of    good    management,  Eiiti.via, 
crowns  a  person   in   congratulation    upon   his   having 
creditably  acquitted  himself  in  a  liturgy. 

We  have  mentioned  only  the  most  important 
examples.  Studied  in  their  details,  these  marbles 
reveal  with  what  simple  art  at  the  best  period  abstract 
entities  were  conceived.  There  is  no  far-fetched  alle- 
gorical suggestion,  no  multiplication  of  confusing 
accessories  ;  the  artist  confined  himself  to  clothing 
pure  abstraction  with  a  plastic  form,  and  attempted 
not  so  much  to  explain  an  allegory  as  to  create  a 
work  of  true  art. 

The  museums  of  Athens  possess  many  more 
sculptured  monuments  that  arc  closely  connected 
with  the  political  life  of  the  Athenians.  Of  this 
number  arc  the  marbles  relating  to  the  EpJicbi,  the 
bas-reliefs  upon  which  show  the  games  and  exercises 
of  young  Athenians  while  in  the  direct  care  of  the 
State  ;  on  some  of  them  the  ephebi  arc  crowning 
their  magistrates  and  other  minor  officers,  as,  for 


FlG.  73. — BUST    OF    THE    COSMETES    OF    THE    ATTIC    EPIIEBI. 
(From  the  Bull,  de  Corf.  helUniquc.} 


23-S  CKF.KK    ARCH.-KOLOGY. 

instance,  the  cosinctcs.  A  special  class  of  these 
marbles  is  formed  by  the  busts  of  the  officers  of  the 
ephebi,  which  were  placed  upon  tetragonal  stela,-, 
after  the  manner  of  Herman,  upon  which  was  carved 
the  decree.  These  arc  actual  portraits,  and  acquaint 
us  most  accurately  with  the  Greek  type  of  the  already 
advanced  epoch  in  which  they  were  executed. 

We  can  easily  sec,  from  the  hints  already  dropped 
with  regard  to  these  classes  of  monuments,  the  place 
held  by  plastic  art  in  the  private,  religious,  and  public 
life  of  the  Greeks.  Beliefs,  ideas,  political  acts,  assume 
a  visible  and  tangible  shape  by  means  of  them. 
The  study  of  these  marbles  may,  perhaps,  reveal  to 
us  facts  that  would  absolutely  escape  our  knowledge 
were  we  reduced  to  the  testimony  of  the  ancient 
writers  alone. 

*  A.  Dumont,  Hull.  </<.'  Corr.  /icllutiiijtu',  I.,  pp.  229-235,  and  IF. 
Plates  vi.,  vn. 


239 


3F0trrtlj. 

TERRA-COTTA  FIGURINES. 

THE  systematic  study  of  these  diminutive  monu- 
ments, which  form  an  important  chapter  in  the 
history  of  Greek  ceramics,  is  of  very  recent  origin. 
Only  within  a  few  years  has  it  taken  a  distinct  posi- 
tion in  archaeology  in  general,  and  only  lately  have 
the  terra-cotta  collections  in  European  museums  been 
described  and  classified.  The  art  of  the  coroplastcs, 
or  modeller  of  figurines,  is  one  that  should  not  be 
overlooked.  It  reveals  to  us,  often  in  an  unexpected 
aspect,  the  familiar  and  popular  side  of  ancient  life, 
the  secret  of  which  is  not  to  be  found  in  the  higher 
arts.  The  study  of  terra-cotta  products  forms  a 
natural  transition  from  the  history  of  sculpture  to 
the  study  of  painted  vases,  the  latter  constituting  the 
more  important  branch  of  ceramics. 

It  is  unnecessary  to  remark  that  the  art  of  the 
modeller  in  terra-cottas  was  employed  in  a  great 
variety  of  forms.  From  his  workshop  came  many 
objects  destined  to  adorn  monuments :  gutters  in 
painted  earthenware,  gargoyles  adorned  with  masks 
and  heads,  as  the  "  main  tiles  in  the  form  of  lions' 
heads "  mentioned  in  the  inventories  of  the  Arsenal 
of  the  Peiroeus,  specimens  of  which  have  been  found. 


2.\O  CRKKK    AK<  ll.l'.Ol.OCY. 

We  shall  now  consider  the  work  of  the  coroplastvc*— 
"  doll-modellers,"  as  they  were  popularly  designated 
— whose  works  furnish  us  with  an  indispensable  com- 
mentary on  the  monuments  of  sculpture  on  a  grander 
scale. 

Tcrra-cottas  form  two  distinct  categories:  stamped 
plaques  and  figurines. 

$   I.    STAMPED    PLAQUES-! 

About  fifty  of  these  monuments  in  different 
European  collections  are  known  at  the  present  date. 
The  process  of  manufacture  was  uniform.  They  were 
executed  by  means  of  a  matrix  containing  the  design, 
which  was  placed  upon  a  thin  cake  of  moist  clay.  After 
the  impression  was  thus  obtained,  the  workman  carved 
the  details  of  the  plaque,  finishing  the  contours  of 
the  figures  and  supplying  the  background,  in  order 
to  give  more  lightness  to  the  work.  After  firing,  the 
plaque  was  painted,  and  then  was  ready  to  be  applied 
to  the  interior  wall  of  a  house  or  of  a  tomb. 

The  place  of  manufacture  of  these  productions  is 
not  certain.  Because  many  of  them  have  been  found 
in  /Egina,  at  the  Pcirajus,  at  Melos,  it  by  no  means 
follows  that  workshops  for  their  production  were 
established  in  these  places.  There  is  reason  to 
believe  that  their  manufacture  was  restricted  to  a 

*  KopojrAarrTui.  "  Coroplastes  :  one  that  models  figures  of  living 
beings,  not  only  images  of  little  boys  or  of  little  girls,  but  any  kind  of 
figure." — Ely m.  Afagit.,  p.  530. 

f  Schone,  Gricchischc  Relicjs,  plates  xxx.— xxxv.  ;  O.  Rayet, 
Monuments  de  f  Art  antique,  ler  livraison,  pi.  x. 


242  GREEK    ARCH/EOLOGY. 

fc\v  localities,  and  the  style  of  these  plaques,  which 
have  all  the  characteristics  of  the  art  of  the  fifth 
century  B.C.,  leads  us  to  believe  that  this  manufacture 
was  of  short  duration. 

The  subjects  illustrated  on  these  plaques  arc 
sometimes  mythological,  sometimes  scenes  from 
ordinary  life.  Two  of  the  most  beautiful  specimens 
of  the  former  variety  are  a  stamped  plaque  of  Melos, 
representing  Bcllerophon  fighting  the  Chimrera,  and 
Perseus  slaying  the  Gorgon,  whose  soul  escapes  from 
the  decapitated  body  in  the  form  of  a  little  figure. 
The  struggle  between  Thetis  and  Pclcus,  on  a  plaque 
found  in  /Eg  in  a,  is  of  great  interest  from  the  point  of 
view  of  composition  ;  we  discover  in  it  the  slender 
and  somewhat  lank  proportions  of  late  archaic  art. 
The  museum  of  the  Louvre  possesses  a  very  beautiful 
specimen,  showing  Orestes  and  Electra  near  Aga- 
memnon's tomb,  subjects  frequently  reproduced  on 
monuments  of  this  nature. 

Subjects  taken  from  daily  life  arc  less  numerous, 
but  these  plaques  arc  of  infinite  value  in  the  study  of 
ancient  life,  manners,  and  customs.  Such  is  a 
stamped  plaque  representing  a  funeral  procession 
(Fig.  74) :  the  dead  body,  placed  in  a  small  waggon 
drawn  by  two  horses,  is  accompanied  by  friends  and 
mourners  on  the  way  to  burial  (eK<j)opa).  The 
persons  forming  this  procession  are  those  authorised 
by  law  ;  the  encliytristria,  carrying  upon  her  head  the 
vase  for  libations  ;  the  flute-player,  and  members  of 
the  family,  the  women  with  unbound  hair ;  young 
men  in  military  dress,  but  unarmed,  seem  to  reproach 


TERRA-COTTA   FIGURINES.  243 

the  dead  for  having  left  them.  This  plaque  is,  as  it 
were,  an  ocular  commentary  on  passages  in  ancient 
writers  and  in  ancient  laws  that  have  come  down  to 
us  relating  to  this  subject* 

Interesting  as  are  these  plaques  in  the  subjects 
they  illustrate,  they  arc  equally  interesting  on  ac- 
count of  their  execution.  In  general  there  is  a 
certain  uniformity  of  style ;  great  simplicity  in 
modelling,  no  very  high  relief;  somewhat  of  stiffness 
in  the  attitudes.  It  is  unquestionably  the  youthful  and 
naive  style  of  the  first  years  of  the  fifth  century  B.C. 
that  we  here  meet,  the  tradition  of  which  may  have 
prevailed  longer  among  the  modellers  in  clay  than 
in  the  schools  of  sculpture. 

§  2.  TERRA-COTTA    FIGURINES. 

HEUZEV  :  Nouvclles  Recherches  snr  Ics  Terres-cuites  grecgues,  and  Les  Figurines 

antiques  de  Tcrre-cnite  du  Alitsee  du  Louvre,  1878^". 
KEKUL£  :  Griechische  Thonfignrcii  aiis  Ta>ta£ra,i8j%. 

O.  RAVET  :  Les  Figurines  de  Tanagra  an  Mus<!e  dit  Lowrc  (in  Gazette  des  Beaux- 
Arts],  1875. 

J.  MARTHA  :  Catalngue  des  Figurines  en  Tcrre-cuite  du  filitsee  de  /«  Societe 
archfologique  d'Athenes,  1880.  (At  p.  xxix.  will  be  found  a  complete  biblio- 
graphy of  the  subject.) 

In  the  study  of  figurines,  the  question  as  to  the  place 
of  production  is  one  of  the  most  important  ;  it 
furnishes  the  safest  datum  as  to  classification.  From 
this  point  of  view,  the  portions  of  the  Greek  world 
that  supplied  most  monuments  of  this  kind  are,  in 
Greece  proper,  Attica,  Bceotia,  and  especially  the  town 

*  Decree  of  lulis  in  Ceos,  Mitlhdl.  des  dentsch.  arch.  Institttts  in 
A  then,  I.,  p.  239. 

Q    2 


ii.i. 


of  Tanagra,  Locris,  Peloponnesus,  and  the  Cycladcs  ; 
in  .Africa,  Cyrenaica  ;  in  Asiatic  Greece,  Rhodes, 
Kphesus,  I'crgamum,  and  Tarsus.  Of  the  localities 
where  figurines  have  been  found  the  best  known  are 
those  either  where  regular  excavations  could  be  con- 
ducted, as  in  the  necropolis  of  Cameirus  in  Rhodes, 

or  those  where  the  pro- 
ducts can  be  systematic- 
ally studied,  as  is  tin- 
case  with  the  terra-eotta 
figurines  from  Tanagra. 
The  essential  point  in 
the  stud}'  of  terra-cottas 
will  long  remain  this 
matter  of  their  proven- 
ance, or  place  of  pro- 
duction ;  only  by  ex- 
amination of  the  clay, 
and  of  the  processes  of 
manufacture,  shall  we 
be  enabled  to  group 
them  according  to  local- 
ities, and  to  apply  to  them  the  method  employed 
in  the  study  of  modern  ceramics. 

From  a  chronological  point  of  view,  classification 
of  tcrra-cotta  figurines  presents  certain  difficulties. 
Among  those  of  most  ancient  style,  some  certainly 
arc  contemporaneous  with  the  beginnings  of  Greek- 
art  ;  but,  as  these  types  never  ceased  to  be  reproduced 
with  scrupulous  fidelity  in  order  to  satisfy  popular 
demands,  the  archaic  style  is  no  infallible  indication 


I-'IC.    "5. — TRAGIC    MASK. 

(Teira-cotta. ) 


TEKRA-COTTA   FIGURINES.  245 

of  antiquity.  The  date  even  of  the  Tanagra  figurines 
cannot  be  fixed  with  any  definiteness  ;  in  general  they 
belong,  both  in  style  and  in  composition,  to  the  fourth 
century  B.C.,  or  to  the  first  years  of  the  third  century 
B.C.  The  figurines  from  Tarsus,  finally,  are  not 
anterior  to  the  Seleucidae,  and  mark  the  latest  epoch 
in  figurine  manufacture.  While  making  these  reserva- 
tions, and  while  admitting  at  once  that  terra-cottas  do 
not  strictly  belong  to  the  period  apparently  indicated 
by  their  style,  we  are  able  to  follow  the  same  varia- 
tions in  style  that  we  have  noted  in  the  marbles  : 
primitive  and  archaic  style,  the  severe  art  of  the  fifth 
century  B.C.,  the  art  of  the  fourth  and  third  centuries 
B.C.,  and  finally  the  style  of  the  last  period,  corre- 
sponding with  the  extension  of  Hellenism  after  the 
time  of  Alexander. 

(i)  Primitive  and  ArcJiaic  style. — These  figurines 
arc  most  frequently  ordinary  idols,  and  have  been 
found  in  great  numbers  in  the  necropolis  of  Tanagra 
and  in  that  of  Tegea.  They  recall  the  old  images  that 
were  objects  of  worship,  carved  wooden  slabs  (aavk] 
like  the  Samian  Hera,  or  \vooden  statues  (%bava)  like 
the  Athena  Polias  in  the  Acropolis  of  Athens,  coarse 
images  hewn  with  a  hatchet,  that  were  not  forgotten 
even  in  the  midst  of  the  most  beautiful  products  of 
plastic  art.  The  technique  of  these  small  idols  is  the 
simplest.  They  were  rapidly  modelled  by  hand  in 
cakes  of  clay,  cut  into  rectangular  shapes  ;  two  stump- 
like  appendages  were  the  arms  ;  the  face  was  suggested 
by  the  workman  by  pinching  the  clay  in  his  fingers. 
Sometimes  the  head  was  modelled  with  greater  care, 


246  C.RKKK    ARCH.KOI.OGY. 

and  \vorc  the  high  cylindrical  head-dress  called  the 
polns ;  accessories  like  ribbons,  diadems,  pendants,  and 
necklaces,  with  which  images  of  worship  were  covered, 
were  imitated  by  beads  of  paste,  applied  to  the 
moist  clay  :  the  toilette  of  the  figurine  was  then 
completed  by  a  streaking  with  red  or  with  bistre.  It 
is  rather  venturesome  to  ascribe  mythological  names 
to  all  these  rude  statuettes;  we  can  safely  do  it  only 
in  rare  cases.  Gerhard  believed  that  an  imitation  of 
the  %oavov  of  Athena  Polias  might  be  recognised  in 
an  Attic  tcrra-cotta,  because  of  a  sort  of  an  jtgis 
covering  the  breast  of  the  figurine.* 

These  terra-cottas  have  hardly  more  tha-n  an 
archaeological  value.  Art  is  more  distinctly  apparent 
in  the  figurines  of  the  archaic  epoch,  which  reflect  the 
style  of  sculpture  of  the  sixth  century.  In  this  number 
we  frequently  recognise  figures  of  seated  goddesses, 
with  the  calm  and  solemn  attitude  expressed  in  the 
epithet  evQpovos.  Wearing  the  stcpJianc  upon  their 
heads,  their  faces  surrounded  by  the  folds  of  a  veil, 
they  hold  their  arms  close  to  their  bodies  and  rest 
their  hands  on  the  knees,  like  the  statues  adorning  the 
sacred  way  at  Branchidae  ;  the  tomb  cities  of  Rhodes 
(Cameirus  in  particular)  and  of  Tanagra  have  furnished 
numerous  examples.  This  class  of  tcrra-cottas  marks 
the  transition  from  the  coarse  primitive  idols  to  the 
figurines  of  the  later  period. 

(2)  Severe  style. — By  this  term  may  be  charac- 
terised figurines  that  arc  the  product  of  the  severe  art 

*  Cesamnicltc  akai.  Ab/iatutlitn^cii,  T.,  p.  232. 


TERRA-COTTA   FIGURINES. 


247 


of  the  fifth  century  B.C., 
where  traces  of  archaism 
have  not  completely 
disappeared.  They  had 
a  different  character 
from  the  figurines  of 
the  preceding  class : 
they  here  commonly 
represent  mythological 
subjects,  and  figures  of 
divinities,  treated  with 
the  religious  feeling  that 
prevailed  at  the  time  of 
the  Persian  wars.*  Cer- 
tain types  of  feminine 
divinities  in  particular 
are  marked  by  an  air  of 
austere  dignity.  Repre- 
sented as  standing  with 
arms  hanging  down, 
clothed  in  costumes  with 
straight  vertical  folds, 
they  preserved  a  sculp- 
tural and  hieratic  atti- 
tude. Such  is  a  beau- 
tiful statue  of  Core, 
found  at  Thisbe,  the 

*  It  is  not  unusual  to  find 
traces  of  fire  on  these  figurines  : 
they  were  often  burned  upon 
the  funeral  pyre. 


FlG.    76. — HERMES    CRIOPHORUS. 

(Terra-cotta  from  Thespice.) 


248  r.KKKK    AKCII.KOLOr.Y. 

style  of  which  has  all  the  characteristic  features 
of  the  art  of  the  fifth  century  li.C.  \Ye  are  right 
in  supposing  that  some  of  these  figurines  repro- 
ducccl,  in  much  smaller  dimensions,  certain  cele- 
brated works  of  the  sculptor's  art  placed  in 
temples.  A  figurine  from  Thcspiae,  for  example/ 
representing  Hermes  carrying  a  ram  upon  his 
shoulders,  seems  to  have  been  directly  inspired  by  the 
Hermes  Criophorus  of  Calami's,  executed  for  the 
people  of  Tanagra  in  memory  of  a  plague  that  had 
desolated  the  city.  "The  god  turned  a  pestilence  away 
from  the  city  by  carrying  a  ram  around  the  walls."  * 
Other  figurines  represent  Hermes  wearing  a  small 
cap  (KVVTJ'),  and  carrying  the  ram  under  his  arm  (Fig. 
76)  :  it  was  thus  that  the  /Eginetan  sculptors,  Onatas 
and  Callitelcs,  conceived  the  statue  of  the  god  that 
they  executed  for  Olympia.f  The  taste  and  tendency 
of  the  coroplastae  for  reproducing  works  of  sculpture 
explains  the  style  of  certain  figurines,  which,  enlarged 
by  the  aid  of  imagination,  might  be  regarded  as 
faithfully  enough  representing  the  lost  works  of  some 
of  the  great  masters. 

To  the  figurines  of  the  severe  style  belong  busts 
moulded  in  tcrra-cotta,  where  may  be  recognised 
types  of  the  Chthonian  divinities.  These  busts  were 
commonly  pierced  in  the  upper  part  with  a  hole  to 
receive  attachments ;  they  could  thus  be  hung  on  the 
inner  wall  of  a  tomb  ;  they  seemed  to  be  rising  from 
the  earth.  In  the  view  of  the  Greek  these  images 

*  Pausanias,  i.x.  22.  i. 
t  Pausanias,  v.  27.  6. 


FlG.   77. — DEMETER. 

(Bust  of  Stamped  Terra-cotta.) 


250  (1RKKK    ARCII.KOI.OCJY. 

called  to  mind  the  divinities  of  the  lower  world, 
appearing  to  mankind  by  showing  only  the  upper 
part  of  their  bodies  above  the  earth.  One  of  the 
most  remarkable  examples  of  this  kind  of  monuments 
is  a  bust  of  Dcmctcr,  published  by  Ileuzcy,*  probably 
from  Tanagra.  The  face  of  the  goddess  is,  in  part, 
enclosed  between  the  folds  of  a  veil ;  this  rests  upon 
a  scarf  or  a  sort  of  turban,  ornamented  with  a  painted 
fretting,  that  binds  the  hair,  while  the  two  hands  arc 
placed  against  the  breast.  By  an  analysis  of  the  face 
and  attributes,  Hcu/.cy  is  led  to  designate  this  bust  as 
a  Dcmctcr :  "  I  know  few  antique  figures  ever;  in 
marble  where  the  depth  of  pensive  and  reflective 
feeling  produces  upon  the  spectator  an  equally  pene- 
trating emotion. "f  Sometimes,  always  with  the  same 
signification,  the  statuette  is  cut  half-way  down  the 
body,  as  may  be  seen  in  a  tcrra-cotta  from  Athens, 
representing  Core,  daughter  of  Dcmctcr,  who  was  also 
a  divinity  of  the  lower  world.  (Fig.  78.) 

(3)  Style  of  tJic  fonrtJi  century  B.C. — This  was  a 
new  period  in  the  industry  in  figurines,  characterised 
principally  by  the  Boeotian  manufactures  of  Tanagra,J 
Thisbe,  and  Aulis,  and  by  those  at  Athens  and  at 
Corinth.  The  process  of  manufacture  is  the  same  as 
that  employed  by  the  coroplasta?  for  all  figurines 
made  with  a  mould.  Though  statuettes  of  a  single 

*  Man iiments  gncs  publu (s  par  F  Association  dcs  Etudes  grccqncs,  1873, 
pi.  I. 

t  Ibia.t  p.  19. 

J  The  museums  richest  in  Tanagra  fiyurines  are  those  of  the  Louvre 
of  Berlin,  and  of  Athens. 


TERRA-COTTA   FIGURINES. 


251 


piece  have  been  found,  generally,  in  the  case  of  the 
most  finished  figurines,  the  front  is  first  obtained  by  a 


FIG.  78. — CORK. 

(Terra-cotta  from  .Athens. 


mould  in  repousse  ;  the  head  and  other  extremities 
were  made  separately.  This  front  portion  was  then 
attached  to  a  back,  which  commonly  has  a  smooth 


252  <;KKKK  AkriU'Oi.ooY. 

surface  ;  the  head,  hands,  and  feet  are  afterwards 
added.  In  the  centre  of  the  back  is  bored  a  vent-hole 
to  allow  the  air  and  moisture  to  escape,  and  the  statu- 
ette is  placed  upon  a  small  pedestal.  The  details  of  the 
head  and  costume,  engraved  by  means  of  a  pointed  in- 
strument, give  each  figure  its  individual  character  and 
personal  physiognomy ;  thus,  in  the  cases  of  a  museum, 
it  is  not  uncommon  to  see  two  figurines  from  the 
same  mould  that  differ  considerably  in  details. 
After  the  first  firing,  the  statuette  passed  into  the 
hands  of  a  workman  whose  duty  it  was  to  paint  it 
from  head  to  foot  ;  he  sometimes  gilded  the  orna- 
ments, such  as  earrings,  necklaces,  and  diadems.  The 
colours  most  frequently  employed  arc  blue,  all  shades 
of  pink,  red,  reddish-brown,  and  black. 

The  interpretation  of  the  subjects  represented, 
which  for  archaic  figurines  is  an  easy  matter,  is  here  a 
much  more  delicate  task.  \Ye  cannot  enter  into 
details  of  the  discussions  which  have  principally 
been  centred  on  this  point.  Are  we  to  attribute  a 
mythological  sense  to  tcrra-cottas  of  the  fourth  cen- 
tury B.C.,  or  are  we  to  see  in  them,  as  a  rule,  only 
representations  of  ordinary  cvery-day  life  ?  Both 
propositions  have  been  sustained  with  a  rich  array  of 
arguments;  but,  at  the  same  time,  the  latter  opinion 
seems  to  accord  best  with  the  character  of  the  types 
figured,  where  a  mythological  sense  is  far  from  being 
clearly  intended.  The  sight  of  these  figurines,  with 
their  life-like  air  and  spirituelle  execution,  carries  us 
rather  into  the  world  of  living  mortals  than  into  the 
Hellenic  Olympus,  and  we  are  constrained  to  ask  of 


TERRA-COTTA    FIGURINES. 


253 


them  the  secret  of  the  daily  life  of  the  Greeks  in  all 
its  most  entertaining  details. 


FlG.   79. — TERRA-COTTA   FROM   TANAGRA. 

On  account  of  their  infinite  variety,  it  is  impossible 
to  group  these  subjects  into  classes,  and  we  can  give 


254  C.RKKK    AKCII.-KOLCXiY. 

only  a  rapid  glance  at  the  most  frequent  representa- 
tions. Subjects  taken  from  the  life  of  men  are  of 
rarer  occurrence.  In  the  Tanagra  statuettes,  some- 
times a  small  boy  is  figured  seated  on  a  sort  of 
cippus  (Fig.  79)  ;  he  holds  a  bag  that  seems  to  con- 
tain a  ball  ;  his  head  is  decked  with  flowers.  Some- 
times an  ephebus  is  represented,  wearing  a  chlamys, 
carrying  in  his  hand  the  instruments  of  the  palaestra, 
emblems  of  physical  exercise,  which  held  so  large  a 
place  in  the  life  of  the  Greeks. 

By  far  the  most  numerous  are  scenes  in  the  life  of 
women.  Here  the  imagination  of  the  coroplasto:  is 
inexhaustible,  and  their  inventive  genius  is  accom- 
panied by  extraordinary  manual  dexterity.  With 
perfect  art  are  they  able  to  vary,  by  differences  of 
attitude  and  of  arrangement,  the  very  simple  motive 
treated  by  preference,  viz.,  a  Greek  lady,  either  in 
home  dress  or  ready  to  walk  abroad.  The  articles  in 
the  costume  are  few  in  number  ;  a  long  tunic,  falling 
to  the  feet,  and  bound  at  the  waist  by  a  girdle,  and  a 
mantle  (himation  or  calyptra}  of  finer  material,  that 
has  an  infinite  variety  of  details,  in  accordance  with 
the  taste  and  caprice  of  the  owner.  The  Bcuotian 
figurines  show  to  what  uses  the  modellers  would  put 
these  different  elements.  Sometimes  women  are  com- 
pletely draped  in  the  himation,  and  have  but  a  small 
part  of  the  face  in  sight ;  again,  they  wear  also  a  little 
hat,  and  in  the  hand  hold  a  fan  in  the  shape  of  a 
lotus-leaf.  At  other  times,  it  is  a  young  girl  that  ha 
allowed  the  calyptra  to  slip  from  her  shoulders,  or 
that  has  so  enveloped  herself  in  it  that  not  even  her 


TERRA-COTTA    FIGURINES. 


255 


hands  are  visible.  Some 
of  these  figurines  have  a 
perfectly  modern  appear- 
ance and  general  effect ; 
there  is  nothing  even  in 
the  details  of  the  way 
of  wearing  the  hair  that 
would  lead  one  to  sus- 
pect in  them  anything 
but  contemporary  works 
of  art.  Figurines  are 
sometimes  grouped  in 
pairs:  thus,  in  a  beautiful 
group  found  at  Corinth, 
of  which  different  es- 
tablishments in  Greece 
proper  furnished  replicas, 
is  exhibited  a  young  girl 
carrying  another  girl 
upon  her  shoulders — the 
game  of  e<f>e8pia-/j,6<;  or 
of  tTTTra?,  still  played 
in  modern  Greece. 

Though  representa- 
tions of  mythological 
subjects,  like  divinities, 
loves,  etc.,  are  not  com- 
pletely neglected  by  the 
coroplastae  of  the  fourth 
century  B.C.,  subjects 
from  ordinary  private 


FIG.  So. 

GREEK   LADY   WEARING   A   FETASUS. 
(Tcrra-cotta  from  Tanagra.) 


256  r.KKKK    AkCII.I-.OI.OClY. 

life  arc  by  far  the  most  frequent.  How  shall  \vc 
explain  this  change  in  figurine  industry  taking  place 
within  two  centuries  ?  It  seems  that  the  modi- 
fications to  which  the  Hellenic  mind  and  popular 
religious  belief  had  become  subject  after  the  Pelopon- 
ncsian  war  had  something  to  do  with  it.  Found  in 
tombs,  these  figurines,  which  have  a  votive  character, 
are  evidently  connected  with  beliefs  as  to  death  and 
burial.  That  in  the  centuries  of  belief,  like  the  time  of 
the  Persian  wars,  idols  representing  gods  should  be  in- 
terred with  the  dead,  seems  perfectly  natural  ;  the  dead 
man  must  be  surrounded  by  his  gods,  his  arms,  his 
jewels,  everything  connected  with  him  in  life.  Later, 
when  the  religious  sentiment  had  loosened  its  hold,  the 
people  continued  to  respect  tradition,  the  meaning  in 
which  was  obscure  ;  they  continued  to  place  with  the 
dead  in  the  tomb  figurines  that  should  recall  to  him 
in  the  other  life  his  mortal  companions  in  this. 
These  figures  should  be  the  delight  of  the  half-real 
life  that  he  was  supposed  to  live  in  the  tomb.  They 
took  the  place  of  living  beings,  slaves,  horses,  which  in 
heroic  times  had  been  immolated  on  the  tomb  of  the 
dead  warrior,  in  order  that  he  might  be  accompanied 
to  Hades  by  his  habitual  companions. 

We  have  dwelt  upon  the  Tanagra  figurines  because 
of  their  importance  and  artistic  value.  They  arc 
interesting  not  only  in  that  they  afford  information 
as  to  Greek  life  in  the  fourth  century  r,.c. ;  they  arc  the 
product  of  one  of  the  periods  in  the  development  of 
I  Icllcnic  genius  in  which  predominated  a  more  subtle 
and  more  refined,  though  less  strictly  religious  art. 


TERRA-COTTA   FIGURINES. 


257 


(4)  Style  of  the  third 
century  B.C. — This  period 
is  characterised  especi- 
ally by  the  manufactories 
at  Pergamum,  Smyrna, 
Ephesus,  Myrina,*  Mile- 
tus, and  Tarsus.  They 
present  appreciable  dif- 
ferences in  technique  ; 
the  clay  is  finer  and  more 
compressed,  and  conse- 
quently the  execution  has 
a  hardness  not  possible 
in  the  Tanagra  figurines, 
that  were  freely  retouched 
according  to  the  fancy  of 
the  artist.  The  subjects, 
moreover,  seem  to  be 
often  inspired  by  work  of 
contemporary  sculpture, 
when  they  are  not  ac- 
tually casts  made  direct 
from  small  bronzes. 
Amid  the  types  of  He- 
racles, of  Eros,  and  of 
Aphrodite,  are  found  the 


*  The  Louvre  possesses  a  rich 
collection  of  figurines  from 
Myrina,  obtained  from  excava- 
tions recently  conducted  by 
Pettier  and  S.  Reinach. 
R 


FlG.    8l. — BACCHANTE. 

(Terra-cotta  from  Tanagra.) 


258  C.RKKK    AKCH.r.OLOC.Y. 

favourite  proportions  of  the  school  of  Lysippus,  the 
small  head  and  longer  body,  in  order  to  obtain  an 
effect  of  elegance  and  slcnderncss. 

The  types  most  frequently  treated  by  Asiatic 
coroplasta:  are  those  that  the  art  of  the  fourth  cen- 
tury 1?. C.  had  brought  into  favour,  the  charming 
divinities  of  the  cyclus  of  Aphrodite,  of  Eros  with 
outstretched  wings,  imitated,  without  doubt,  from  the 
famous  statue  of  Praxiteles,  of  Aphrodite  Anadyomcne, 
and  of  Eros  and  Psyche  embracing  each  other,  as  in 
the  beautiful  gilded  group  found  in  Smyrna.  These 
monuments  give  rise  to  interesting  comparisons 
with  works  of  sculpture,  which,  in  their  careful 
execution,  they  closely  approach.  At  the  same  time 
imagination  and  free  imitation  of  nature  had  their 
place.  From  Asia  Minor  comes  a  scries  of  interesting 
statuettes  representing  grotesque  creatures,  mounte- 
banks, hawkers,  etc.,  treated  with  a  firm  and  swift 
hand,  which  show  us  that  the  Greek  spirit  under- 
stood caricature.  (Eig.  82.) 

The  most  recent  of  Asiatic  manufactories  appears 
to  be  that  of  Tarsus,  the  products  of  which  are  not 
anterior  to  the  times  of  the  Scleucidaj.  It  is  known 
to  us  principally  by  fragments,  in  part  in  the  Louvre 
and  in  part  in  the  British  Museum,  which  came  from 
a  hillock  called  Gucuslu-Kalah  (Belvedere  Fort),  near 
the  walls  of  ancient  Tarsus.  The  excavations  were 
made  under  the  direction  of  \Y.  Barker,  in  1845,  and 
of  Langlois,  in  1852.*  The  result  of  the  observations 

*  Sec     Ileiucy,    Les   Fragments    <lc    7\trse   an    .Waste  du   Louvre, 
in  Gazette  dcs  Beaux- Arts,  1876. 


TERRA-COTTA   FIGURINES. 


259 


of  Heuzey  is  that  these  fragments  were  pieces  of 
refuse  material  that  had 
been  injured  in  the 
firing ;  rejected  by  the 
modellers,  and  thrown 
together,  they  made  in 
time  a  large  mass.  In 
spite  of  their  humble 
origin,  these  terra-cottas 
have  a  real  value.  They 
exhibit  all  the  features 
of  the  prevalent  style 
after  the  time  of  Alex- 
ander— that  which  the 
diffusion  of  Hellenistic 
civilisation  extended  to 
all  regions  of  the  Greek 
world.  The  modellers 
of  Tarsus  seem  to  be  con- 
nected with  the  school 
of  sculpture  that  had 
its  centres  at  Rhodes, 
Tralles,  and  Pergamum  ; 
they  copied  the  works 
of  these  sculptors,  and 
thus  among  the  frag- 
ments in  the  Louvre  is 


to    be    found    a 


^roup 


FlG.     82. — FEDLAK. 


representing   the  famous    (Grotesque  Figurine  from  Asia  Minor.) 

Laccoon  group.     At  the 

same  time  their  style  had  something  of  the  theatrical 


R  2 


260 


GKKKK    AKCII.KOLOdY. 


and  affected  taste  that  prevailed  under  the  successors 
of  Alexander. 

The  subjects  figured  are  equally  worthy  of  atten- 
tion. They  exhibit  a  curious  combination  and 
mixture  of  types  taken  from  Hellenic  mythology, 
with  Oriental  attributes.  The  distinctive  character- 


FlG.    83. — TERRA-COTTA    FRAGMENT    FROM    TARSI'S. 

istics  of  divinities  arc  often  mixed  and  confounded  ; 
at  the  same  time  local  divinities,  like  Men  and  Atys, 
are  often  figured.  These  arc  most  valuable  materials 
for  the  study  of  that  process  of  assimilation  brought 
about  in  Asia  Minor  after  the  Greek  conquest, 
which  mingled  native  and  local  forms  of  worship 
with  mythological  beliefs  originating  among  the 
Greeks  proper. 


KJook  fiftlj. 

PAINTED  VASES. 


CHAPTER    I. 

GENERAL   QUESTIONS   IN    THE   HISTORY   OF 
CERAMIC    ART. 

GERHARD  :  Rapporto  Volcente,  1831. 

OTTO    JAHN  :     Introduction    to    his   Beschre.bnng   der    Vasensammlung    Koni>> 

Lndwig's  in  der  Pinakothek  zu  Munchen,  1854. 
CH.  LENORMANT  and  DE  WITTE  :    Introduction   to  their  Alite  des   Monuments 

ceramograpliiques,  1844^ 

DE  WITTE  :  Etudes  sur  tes  I'ascs  peints,  1865. 
KIHCH  :  History  of  Ancient  Pottery,  znded.,  1873. 
A.   DUMONT  :  Peintures  ccramiqites  de  la  Crece  propre,  1874. 
A.  DUMONT  and  CHAPLAIN  :  Les  Cerainiques  de  la  Gtece propre,  i88r^/. 
GERHARD  :  Auserlesene griechiscJte  Vasenbilder,  1840  —  1858. 

VERY  little  is  known  about  painting  among  the 
Greeks.  Descriptions  given  by  ancient  writers  of 
the  works  of  Polygnotus,  of  Zeuxis,  of  Apelles,  of 
Parrhasius,  of  Protogenes,  etc.,  are  not  sufficient  to 
give  us  an  exact  idea ;  and  the  paintings  of  Pompeii, 
where  one  finds  occasionally  a  reminiscence  of  cele- 
brated compositions,  belong  especially  to  the  history 
of  art  in  Italy.  They  betray,  besides,  the  pre- 
dominant taste  of  a  somewhat  degenerate  age,  which 
may  be  termed  the  Alexandrine  or  Hellenistic  age. 
In  the  absence  of  other  monuments,  ceramic  paintings 
have  a  peculiar  value.  They  represent  a  branch  of 


262  T.RKKK    AUdl.V.OLOr.Y. 

an  art,  the  principal  works  of  which  arc  lost  to  us. 
But  not  for  this  only  do  we  take  interest  in  painted 
vases;  the  subjects  that  decorate  them,  by  reason  of 
their  variety,  arc  like  an  illustrated  commentary  on 
all  Greek  antiquity.  Mythological  scenes,  where 
figure  all  the  Olympian  divinities,  heroic  legends, 
religious  and  funeral  ceremonies,  gymnastic  exercises, 
scenes  of  feasting,  of  betrothal,  of  marriage,  of  the 
toilette,  etc.  ;  all  these  subjects  are  depicted  upon  the 
vases,  and  revive  for  us  all  antiquity  in  its  religious 
and  familiar  life.  We  may  judge  of  the  importance 
of  these  data  by  the  number  of  the  painted  vases  that 
have  been  preserved.  There  arc  not  less  than  20,000* 
scattered  through  museums  and  private  collections,  f 

The  first  painted  vases  to  attract  the  attention  of 
scholars,  about  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
were  found  in  Tuscany  ;  the  general  opinion  was 
that  they  were  products  of  Ktruria ;  hence  the  de- 
signation Etruscan  "cases,  which  is  now  universally 
discarded.  It  is  not  necessary  to  examine  all  the 
erroneous  theories  to  which  the  interpretation  of 
Greek  vases  gave  rise  during  the  eighteenth  century. 


*   Birch,  History  of  Ancient  Pottery,  p.  149. 

t  Museum  of  the  Louvre,  and  Cabinet  clcs  Medailles,  in  Paris  ; 
British  Museum,  Catalogue  of  the  Greek  and  Etruscan  I'ases  in  the 
British  Museum  ;  Berlin,  catalogue  by  FurUviingler,  1885  ;  Munich, 
Otto  Jahn,  Beschreibung  der  Vasetisammluitg  AYw;>  LttJwig's  in  der 
Pinakothektu  Aftinchttti  1854;  Naples,  Bourbon  Museum,  Heydeniann, 
VasensamHihtng  des  Afnseo  Nazi-male  zu  Neapel,  1874  ;  St.  Petersburg, 
Museum  of  the  Hermitage,  catalogue  by  Stephani,  1 869 ;  Athens, 
Museum  of  Varvakcion  :  Collignon,  Catalogue  des  Vases  feints  du 
Societe  arch,  tfAthenes,  1878. 


PAINTED   VASES.  263 

To  Winckelmann  belongs  the  honour  of  discovering 
the  Hellenic  origin  of  painted  vases ;  and  James 
Millingcn  in  the  beginning  of  the  present  century 
founded  a  school  of  simpler  and  more  reasonable 
criticism.  The  discovery  of  the  necropolis  of  Vulci  in 
Etruria,  near  the  Ponte  della  Badia  (1828),  is  a  most 
important  item  in  the  history  of  the  study  of  painted 
and  inscribed  vases.  Many  thousand  painted  vases 
were  brought  to  light,  and  the  work  of  Gerhard  on  the 
vases  of  Vulci  marked  the  beginning  of  a  new  school 
of  research,  which  substituted  knowledge  for  guesses. 
French  and  other  foreign  scholars,  among  whom 
Gerhard,  Panofka,  Otto  Jahn,  Charles  Lenormant, 
and  De  Witte,  occupy  the  front  rank,  have  introduced 
method  into  these  studies.* 

While  at  the  present  time  an  exclusively  Etruscan 
origin  is  no  longer  attributed  to  painted  vases,  the 
question  as  to  the  place  of  their  production  remains 
one  of  the  most  difficult  of  archaeological  problems. 
From  whence  came  those  vases  of  Greek  type  found 
in  Etrurian  tomb-cities,  styled  Italo-Greek  vases? 
Were  they  imported  from  Greece,  or  is  it  better  to 
suppose  them  the  products  of  local  workshops,  imita- 
tions made  by  Italian  artists  of  models  brought  from 
Greece  ?  We  cannot  admit  the  opinion  of  Otto  Jahn, 
advocated  previously  by  G.  Kramer,  according  to 
which  all  vases  found  in  Italy,  with  a  few  rare  excep- 
tions, were  produced  in  Greece,  perhaps  even  in 
Athens.  This  rigid  system  leaves  no  place  for  the 

*  Furtwangler,  whose  catalogue  of  the  vases  in  the  Berlin  Museum 
is  a  model,  promises  an  Handbuch  iiber  die  griech .  Vasenmalerei. 


264  (IKF.r.K    AkriI.V.OLOGY. 

activity  of  Italian  potters.  The  solution  of  this 
question  can  only  be  attained  by  the  careful  com- 
parison of  Italo-(ireck  vases  with  those  of  Greece 
proper. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  in  the  sixth  and  fifth 
centuries  i;.c.  importations  from  Greece  into  Italy 
were  very  frequent  :  this  is  proved  by  fact.  In  Greece 
and  in  Italy  have  been  found  vases  identical  in 
style,  with  similar  subjects  ;  and  this  coincidence  is 
especially  striking  in  the  archaic  period.  The  testi- 
mony of  history  confirms  that  of  these  facts.  It  is 
known  that  about  655  i;.c.  (Olym.  XXXI.  2)  the  Corin- 
thian Demaratus,  driven  from  Corinth  by  the  tyrant 
Cypselus,  emigrated  to  Tarquinii,  accompanied  by 
two  artists,  Kucheir  and  Kugrammus.*  The  legendary 
name  Kugrammus,  "  one  who  traces  beautiful  lines," 
seems  to  signify  simply  that  Demaratus  brought  with 
him'  potters  skilled  in  the  art  of  decorating  vases. 
Thus  docs  the  existence  in  Ktruria  of  Greek  earthen- 
ware, covered  with  inscriptions  in  Corinthian  charac- 
ters, find  an  easy  explanation.  The  abundance  of 
the  commerce  between  Greece  and  Italy  in  later 
epochs  is  furthermore  proved  by  definite  facts.  Certain 
signatures  of  artists  are  to  be  read  at  once  on  vases 
found  in  Greece,  and  on  pottery  from  the  tomb-cities 
of  Italy. f  This  argument  settles  the  question. 


*   I'liny,  A'./f.  \.\\v.  152. 

t  A.  Dumont,  l\-intures  ccrainiques  dc  la  Grccc  fro/>re,  p.  5- 
The  names  recovered  by  Dumont  on  vases  from  Greece  proper  are 
the  following:  (I)  on  Mack-figured  vasts,  Chares,  Cheiron,  Krgo- 
iimus,  Kxekias,  Nearchus,  Scythes,  Timonidas,  Tleson,  son  of 


PAINTED   VASES.  265 

It  is  beyond  doubt,  however,  that  at  one  time  the 
Italo-Greek  districts  had  their  local  workshops,  and 
that  Greek  vases  were  imitated  in  Italy.  We  draw 
this  inference  from  the  study  of  Italian  pottery,  which 
betrays,  especially  at  the  time  of  decline,  a  very 
marked  local  style.  To  sum  up,  we  must  admit 
frequent  importations  in  the  sixth  and  fifth  centuries 
B.C.,  community  in  inspiration,  imitation  in  Italy  of 
types  peculiar  to  Greece  proper,  commercial  rela- 
tions at  all  times,  and  also  the  importance  of  local 
fabrics,  which  increases  the  further  we  are  separated 
from  the  best  epoch.  Such  seems  to  be  the  truth 
on  the  question  as  to  the  resemblance  between  Greek 
and  Italian  pottery.* 

We  shall,  then,  be  justified,  in  our  general  discus- 
sion, in  applying  the  same  principles  to  Italo-Grcek 
vases  as  to  vases  from  Greece  proper,  and  to  regard 
them  all  as  products  of  Hellenic  industry  which 
wrought  under  the  influence  of  the  same  traditions  in 
all  the  Greek  countries  bordering  on  the  Mediter- 
ranean, f 

Xearchus,  Pasias,  Chelis,  Xicosthenes,  Gamedes  ;  (2)  on  red-figured 
vases,  Hegias,  Hilinus,  Psiax,  Xenophantus.  The  names  of  Cachrylion, 
Teisias,  Procle>,  and  Megacles,  should  be  added  to  the  list.  The  signatures 
of  Greek  artists  upon  vases  have  been  collected  by  Klein,  Die griech. 
Vasen  init  Meistersignaturen  (DenkschriJ'ten  tier  Wiener  Akad. ),  1883. 

*  Dumont,  id.,  p.  25. 

t  It  should,  meantime,  be  noted  that  though  painted  vases  are 
Greek  and  not  Etruscan,  Etruria  had  a  special  industry — that  of  vases  of 
black  clay  with  low  reliefs,  the  so-called  bucchero  nero.  These  are  found 
usually  in  a  limited  territory,  between  the  Tiber  on  the  south,  and  Sienna 
on  the  north.  This  is  the  national  pottery  of  Etruria.  [Specimens  have 
been  found  in  Rhodes,  etc.] 


266 


CHAPTER  II. 

TIIK    FORMS   AND   TKCHMQUK   OF    PAINTED 
VASES. 


S    t.     FORMS    OF    VASEP. 

THK  nomenclature  of  Greek  vases  is  far  from  being  de- 
finitely established.  Among  the  varied  forms  created 
by  the  fancy  of  the  potter  there  are  some  that  we  can- 
not designate  by  special  terms.  Thus,  in  collections 
of  Greek  vases,  it  is  customary  to  direct  the  reader,  in 
the  case  of  each  vase,  to  a  table  of  general  forms,  in 
which  the  forms  are  known  by  numbers.  This  method, 
while  scientifically  precise,  has  the  advantage  of  sup- 
plying means  of  reference  to  forms  for  which  no 
name  is  given.  And  yet  there  arc  certain  designations 
that  arc  clearly  established  and  definite.  The  im- 
portant work  of  Panofka,*  revised  and  completed 
by  other  scholars,  has  fixed  the  meaning  of  a  great 
many  names.  These  names  have  been  adopted  by 
all  archaeologists  of  the  present  time,  and  apply  to 

*  Panofka,  Rechenhes  snr  hs  vcritables  Noms  des  Vases  grecs,  1829; 
Lctronne,  Observations  sur  les  Noms  des  Vases  grecs,  etc.  Paris,  1833; 
Cf.  Ussing,  DC  Nomiiribiis  Vasoritm,  1844  ;  Ch.  Lenormant  and  de 
\Vitte,  Introduction  to  tlieir  Elite  des  Monuments  ctramographiques  ; 
I.au,  Die g rice hischen  I ras(n,  Hire  Fcrnien  und  Decorations  System,  1877 


PAINTED   VASES. 


267 


well-recognised  forms.    We  will  here  mention  the  most 
common  and  at  the  same  time  the  simplest  types. 

The  ainpJiora  (a/u,0opei/<?)  is  a  vase  with    ovoidal 
body,  mounted  on  a  foot  that  sometimes  has  the  form 
of  a  truncated  cone.     Two  handles  are  attached  to  the 
neck    and    to    the    upper    part    of    the    body.      The 
dimensions    of  the    amphora  vary 
from    the    amphoridion     used    for 
domestic  purposes  up  to  the  mag- 
nificent and  richly  painted  amphora 
which  figured  among  wedding  pre- 
sents  in    a    nuptial    procession,   as 
may   be  seen   on   a  beautiful   vase 
in  the  Museum  at  Athens.     These 
great  amphorae    were    simply    ob- 
jects of  luxury,  since  specimens  of 
them  found  in  our  museums   seem 
to  have  no  hollow  interior,  and  could  not,  therefore, 
have  been  put  to  any  use. 

The  crater  (rcpuTr/p)  was  generally  of, great  size. 
According  to  the  etymology  of  the  name,  it  is  the  vase 
used  for  mixing  water  and  wine.  Its  form  is  spreading, 
the  mouth  or  opening  is  wide,  and  two  small  handles 
are  attached  to  the  lower  part  of  the  body.  The 
oxybaphon  is  derived  directly  from  it,  with  this  differ- 
ence, however — that  the  handles  are  placed  higher  up, 
and  are  attached  just  under  the  orifice  of  the  vase. 
The  orifice  itself,  instead  of  expanding  like  the  calyx 
of  a  flower,  as  in  the  crater,  is  joined  to  the  body 
by  an  oblique  moulding. 

The  celebe  (/ceXe/S??)  presents  forms  similar  to  the 


FIG. 


L. — AMPHORA. 


268  CRKKK    AKCII.KOI.OCV. 

two    preceding,  but    at  the   neck  it   throws  narrower, 


IMC.  85. 

CRATKR. 


IMC.  S6. 
CRATKR:  HANHLKS  WITH  VOLUTKS. 


FlC.   87.  —  OXYHAI'IION.  FlC.  88. — CELKUK. 

and  tlic  two  liandlcs  arc  fixed  into  the  lower  surface 


TAINTED   VASES.  269 

of  a  large  flat  border  which  crowns  the  opening   of 


FlG.  89. — STAMNUS. 


FlO.  90. — HYDRIA. 


the  vase.    The  stamnus  (crra/i^ov)  is  likewise  narrower 
at  the  neck,  and  has  two. 
handles  or  ears  placed  upon 
the  upper  part  of  the  body 
of  the  vase. 

The  hydria  (vSpi'a)  is 
characterised  by  the  neck 
that  surmounts  its  ovoidal 
body,  and  by  its  three 
handles,  one  of  which,  at 
the  back,  is  attached  to  the 
mouth  and  rises  above  it  ; 
the  other  two,  like  elbows, 
are  applied  to  the  sides  of 
the  vase.  The  calpis 


FIG.  91. — CALPIS. 


differs  from  the  hydria  only  as  to  the  handle  at  the 


2/0 


CRKKK    AK(  II.KOLOGV. 


back,  which  is  lower  ;  the/r//tr  (-TreX/*?;)  has  only  two 
handles  placed  at  the  neck  of  the  vase,  which  is  joined 
to  the  body  by  a  curve  scarcely  perceptible. 

The  (vnochoc   (olvo^oij)   is  usually  of 
smaller  dimensions,    and    exhibits  most 
elegant    outlines.      The   single     handle 
which  adorns  the   back   is  delicate  and 
is  gracefully  curved  ;  the   edges  of  the 
orifices  at  three  places  arc,  as  it  were, 
bent  inward,  and  thus  outline  a  trefoil. 
Not    uncommonly,    at    the    best    period 
of  ceramic  art,  the  cenochoe,  like  other 
vases   of  small    size,  is   decorated    with 
most  exquisite  paintings;  certain  speci- 
mens   from   Attica    arc    perfect    masterpieces.      The 
prochobs  (TT/SO^OO?)  differs  but  slightly  from  the  cenochoe. 
It  is  the  vase  that   the  Homeric  poet  puts  into  the 


FIG.  92. 
IKNOCIIOF.. 


FIG.  93.— CYLIX. 

hands  of  cup-bearers   in  the  Odyssey*     The  cpicliysis 
(eVr^uo-iv)  is  also  a  variety  of  the  CL-nochoe. 

Amongst  the  most  elegant  vases  should  be  placed 
the  cup  or  cylix  (KU\I^).     Sometimes   it  is  without   a 


Horn.,  OJyss.  xviii.  397. 


PAINTED   VASES. 


271 


foot  (apodal] ;  sometimes  it  rests  upon  a  foot,  light 
in  design,  above  which  it  expands  to  a  considerable 
size.  The  cylix  is  more  or  less  shallow  ;  frequently 
it  is  almost  flat.  The  cyatJius  (KvaOo^)  is  a  cylix  with 
a  single  handle,  and  the  Jwlinns  (0X^109)  is  a  sort  of 
cylix  with  a  very  slender  foot,  and  is  without  a  handle. 


FlG.    94.—  CYATHUS. 


FlG.    95. — CANTHARUS. 


When  the  flat  handles  of  the  cylix  are  attached  to  a 
vase  without  a  foot,  gradually  diminishing  in  diameter 
towards  the  base,  the  vase  is  called  a  scypJnis  (crKvfyos). 
The  cantJiarus  (icdv6apos}  is  pre-eminently  the 
Dionysiac  vase;*  it  is  a  large  cup,  furnished  with  two 
very  elevated  handles  ;  it  has  a  foot,  and  was  often 

*  In  the  combat  between  the  Centaurs  and  the  Lapithre,  painted  by 
Hippeus,  the  contestants  strike  at  each  other  with  canthari.  Cf.  Athen- 
aeus,  xi.  474  D,  on  the  carchesion.  [In  Athenrcus,  Ddpn.  xi.,  are  given 
the  names  of  many  Greek  vases  and  cups,  with  descriptions.] 


C.KEKK    AKCII.F.OI.OGY. 


decorated    with    subjects    taken    from    the    cycle    of 
Dionysus.     The  can/icsion    ica-ia-iov    differs  from  it 


Fir,.  96. 
CARCHKSION. 


Fir..  97- 

I.KCYTIU'S. 


Fir..   98. 

Ol.l'K. 


in 


its  dimensions,  and  in  its  handles,  which  are 
attached  by  a  sort  of  bolt  to  the 
sides  of  the  vase. 

The  carefully  moulded  and 
delicate  forms  of  certain  other 
vases,  as  well  as  their  small  si/e, 
indicate  that  they  were  designed  to 
receive  liquids  more  precious  than 
\vinc  or  water.  Such  is  the  IccytJnis 
(\i']Kv6o^,  a  sort  of  cruet  used  for 
perfumes,  where  the  slender  body 

is  terminated  by  an  elegant  neck, 
FIG.  99.— ARYHAI.UC  .  .  . 

LECYTHUS.  with  a  conical  opening  ;    this  type, 

when  of  Athenian  workmanship, 
often  presents  forms  of  rare  beauty.  The  olpc  (O\TT^), 
derived  from  it  has  a  more  rounded  body,  and  a  more 


PAINTED   VASES.  273 

open  neck.  The  handle  is  very  elevated,  and  is 
attached  at  the  edge  of  the  orifice  and  at  the  base  of 
the  neck.  When  the  lecythus,  instead  of  being  elon- 
gated, becomes  rounded  and  has  a  spherical  body,  it 
is  called  an  aryballic  lecytJins;  it  resembles  the  aryballns 
(apu/3aXXo<?) ,  which  is  a  spherical  vase  without  a  foot 
with  a  contracted  neck,  which  terminates  in  a  wide 
flat  brim,  and  is  attached  to  the  body  of  the  vase  by  a 
very  short  handle.  The  aryballus  was  used  to  hold 


FIG.   100.  FIG.  101.         FIG.   102.  FIG.   103. 

ARYBALLUS.  BOMBYLIUS.      COTYLISCUS.        ALABASTRON. 


the  oil  with  which  athletes  rubbed  themselves  down  ; 
it  figures  often  in  bathing  scenes,  and  in  scenes  of  the 
palaestra  and  of  the  gymnasium.  The  bombylius 
(/3<yi/3u\io?)  is  an  elongated  aryballus  ;  it  has  a  flat 
brim,  furnished  with  a  solid  handle  pierced  with  a 
small  hole.  With  a  body  very  slender  at  the  base,  but 
widening  above,  it  becomes  the  cotyliscus  (KOTV\IO-KO<;). 
These  vases  are  not  all  designed  to  hold  liquids. 
The  pyxis  (TTV^I^)  is  in  fact  a  toilette  box,  having  a  body 
which  is  set  into  a  lid,  furnished  with  a  ring  of  bronze. 
Scenes  from  the  toilette,  which  often  ornament  the 
S 


2/4  CREKK    ARC1I.KOLOCY. 

lid,  recall  the  uses  of  the  pyxis  ;  in  one  of  these  vases, 
discovered  in  Athens,  were  found  pastilles  of  paint. 
The  alabastron  likewise  had  its  place  in  the  toilette. 
In  the  scenes  represented,  it  is  found  in  the  hands  of 
goddesses,  or  of  attendants  attiring  their  mistresses. 
It  is  a  vase  of  elongated  form,  with  a  narrow  neck, 
and  is  sometimes  of  alabaster  or  of  coloured  glass. 

In  this  rapid  survey  we  are  far 
from  having  exhausted  the  series  of 
forms  created  by  Greek  potters. 
One  can  obtain  an  idea  of  the  fer- 
tility of  their  invention  only  by 
seeing  on  the  shelves  of  a  museum 
these  varied  shapes,  often  borrowed 
Fie.  104.— KHVTON.  from  types  of  animal  and  of  veget- 
able life.  A  vase  now  represents 
a  hare,  or  a  bird  ;  now  it  is  a  human  foot  sandalled; 
again  it  represents  two  shells  fitted  together.  In  this 
class  of  vases  the  most  remarkable  is  the  rhyton 
(pv-rov),  which  often  has  the  form  of  a  curved  horn  ; 
the  pointed  part  represents  the  head  of  an  animal,  of 
an  ox  or  of  a  horse,  surmounted  by  a  large  spreading 
neck,  to  which  a  handle  is  attached.  At  times  the 
rhyton  is  no  more  than  a  drinking-horn,  from  which 
may  flow  a  thin  stream  of  liquid ;  it  is  then  an  actual 
receptacle,  furnished  with  a  foot,  the  central  part  being 
formed  by  a  head  in  relief.  Such  is  a  beautiful  rhyton 
in  the  Museum  at  Athens,  representing  the  head  of 
an  Ethiopian,  with  lips  painted  a  vivid  red.  When 
potters  abandoned  classic  forms  their  fancy  knew  no 
bounds.  The  vase  was  decorated  with  reliefs,  which 


PAINTED   VASES.  275 

became  the  essential  part.  These  mixed  products 
belong  as  much  to  the  class  of  terra-cottas  as  to  that 
of  painted  vases. 

§  2.    TECHNIQUE    OF    VASES. 

It  is  chiefly  to  the  labours  and  experiments  of  the 
Due  de  Luynes*  that  \ve  are  indebted  for  our  know- 
ledge of  the  manufacture  of  Greek  vases.  The  minute 
analyses  of  this  scholar  have  thrown  light  upon  the 
principal  points  in  question. 

The  clay  used  by  the  potters  was  very  fine,  and 
was  carefully  prepared  ;  the  vase  was  made  on  the 
potter's  wheel,  and  the  workman  afterwards  attached 
the  neck  and  handles.  After  the  first  baking,  which 
left  the  clay  still  soft,  the  artist,  whose  business  it 
was  to  paint  the  vase,  traced  his  subject  upon  it  with 
a  blunt  or  rounded  point,  marking  the  main  outlines.f 

The  process  of  painting  varied,  according  as  the 
vase  was  decorated  with  black  figures  on  a  red  ground 
(black-figured  vases),  or  with  red  figures  on  a  black 
ground  (red-figured  vases). 

In  the  former  case  it  is  the  natural  colour  of  the 
clay  that  gives  the  red  ground  for  the  painting.  The 
figures  stand  out  like  black  silhouettes,  which  the  artist 
obtains  by  filling  in  the  outlines  of  the  sketch  with 

*  Annali  deW  Institute  di  Corr,  arch.,  Vol.  IV.,  p.  138^ 
t  We  can  still  see  upon  certain  vases  traces  of  this  sketch,  as  on  a 
cylix  in  the  Museum  at  Athens  :  Collignon,  Catal.  des  Vases  feints  du 
Musee  d' Attunes,  No.   462  ;   the  same  on  a  cylix  signed  Cachrylion, 
Btdl.    de  la   Societe  des   Antiquaires  de  France,  1878,   p.   47.     These 
tracings  constituted   the    first   sketch,   by   means   of  which   the   artist 
essayed  to  define  his  subject. 
S   2 


2/6  r.KF.KK    ARCH.l.OI.OCY. 

colour  ;*  details,  such  as  the  muscles,  the  folds  of  gar- 
ments, the  features  of  the  face,  etc.,  are  drawn  after- 
wards with  a  dry  point,  which  attacks  the  black  tint, 
and  causes  the  natural  colour  of  the  clay  to  reappear. 
This  is  the  most  ancient  method.  It  is  followed  in 
vases  of  the  archaic  style. 

When  vases  were  ornamented  with  red  figures  on 
black  ground,  the  technique  was  very  dillerent.  '1  he- 
sketch  was  made  with  a  fine  brush  charged  with  black 
paint  ;  the  artist  \\ith  a  heavier  brush  then  surrounded 
these  outlines  with  a  bold  uniform  tint  which  isolated 
them,  and  afterwards  retouched  with  a  black  anting 
all  the  ground  of  the  vase.  The  details  of  the  figures, 
thus  standing  free  upon  the  red  colour  of  the  clay, 
were  then  traced  with  a  fine  pencil  in  lines  of  exceed- 
ing delicacy. 

Black  was  not  the  only  colour  employed  ;  for  re- 
touching, use  was  made  of  white,  and  of  purplish-red,  to 
heighten  the  details  of  the  black  figures.  Later,  poly- 
chrome paintings  became  popular,  especially  in  the 
fourth  and  third  centuries  15. c.  To  the  most  carefully 
finished  vases  were  applied  gildings  that  heightened 
still  more  the  richness  of  the  painting,  upon  which  blue, 
green,  bright  yellow,  and  brownish-red  were  lavished. 
Finally,  certain  vases,  particularly  the  Iccythi  of 
Athenian  manufacture,  were  covered  with  a  white 
coating,  which  was  carefully  polished,  and  easily  lent 
itself  to  work  with  the  brush. 

Inscriptions  accompanying  the  figures,  or  relating 

*  This  black  colour  had  for  a  b.ise  oxide  of  iron. 


PAINTED   VASES.  277 

to  the  artist,  arc  traced  with  a  brush,  cither  with  the 
brilliant  black  used  for  the  figures,  or  with  the  other 
colours  used  in  retouching ;  sometimes  inscriptions 
are  engraved  with  a  sharp-pointed  instrument  after  the 
manner  of  graffiti. 

The  work  in  the  vases  is  thus  twofold  :  that  of 
the  potter,  and  that  of  the  designer  and  painter. 
This  co-operation  is  attested  by  the  signatures  of 
artists  placed  upon  vases.*  Thus  the  Frangois  Vase 
of  the  gallery  of  Florence,  one  of  the  most  beautiful 
black-figured  vases  known,  bears  the  double  signature 
of  the  potter,  Ergotimus,  and  of  the  draughtsman, 
Clitias,  'EpyorifAos  eTroirjazv,  KXma?  jjb  eypatyev.^ 
The  word  eiroirja-ev  usually  refers  to  the  modeller, 
who  gave  to  the  vase  its  elegant  form,  and  the 
word  eypa-frev  to  the  artist  who  covered  it  with 
figures,  which  were  first  drawn  and  then  painted.^: 
Sometimes  the  potter  is  also  the  designer.  In  that 
case  his  name  is  usually  followed  by  the  phrase, 
eypa-tyev  KOI  eiroiriaev.  These  signatures  are  most 
important  in  the  study  of  ceramic  art. 

It  is  not  easy  to  define  the  amount  of  invention  that 
belongs  to  the  designer  in  the  decoration  of  vases  ; 
it  is  certain  that  he  employed  neither  pointers  nor 
tracings.  Sketches  in  which  we  can  follow  the  outlines 

*  See  De  Witte,  Noins  dts  Fabruanls  ct  Dcssinalcurs  dcs  Vases 
feints,  1848. 

t   EPFOTIM02  EnOIESENEN  (sit)  KAITIA2  MEFPA*2EN. 

+  The  word  ypdcfKiv  refers  not  to  the  ypcupat,  paintings,  but  to  the 
ypd.fjLfj.ara,  which  are  the  lines  drawn.  It  was  here  that  the  talent  of  the 
artist  showed  itself.  An  ordinary  workman  could  fill  in  with  colours  the 
outlines  sketched  by  the  more  skilled  artist. 


2/8  C.RKKK    AIU'H.KOLOCiY. 

indicate  the  gropings,  as  it  were,  of  the  artist,  who  is 
feeling  his  way.  But  did  he  copy  a  model  ?  \Yc 
admit  that  the  pictures  of  the  most  famous  painters 
might  have  been  reproduced  by  the  painter  of  vases  ; 
it  is  exceedingly  probable  that  for  certain  common 
subjects  the  artist  had  a  model  before  his  eyes,  which 
he  imitated  more  or  less  exactly,  reducing  or  adding 
figures,  according  to  the  space  to  be  filled  up.  But 
he  was  not  obliged  to  make  a  slavish  copy  ;  numerous 
vases  certify  that  originality  and  fancy  asserted  them- 
selves. The  artists  in  vases  were  assuredly  of  an 
humble  order.  And  yet  in  a  people,  the  most  artistic 
that  has  ever  existed,  the  humblest  works  recall  the 
traditions  of  the  grand  style.  Art  and  trade  were  not 
strictly  divided,  and  in  his  limited  domain  the  painter 
of  vases  could  attain  and  maintain  a  certain  inde- 
pendent individuality. 


279 


CHAPTER    III 

CLASSIFICATION    OF   PAINTED   VASES. 

THE  safest  method  in  the  study  of  ceramic  paintings 
consists  in  classifying  them  in  chronological  order 
according  to  the  style  of  their  decoration.  In  this  way 
groups  are  formed  which  present  distinct  characteris- 
tics, and  correspond  to  the  different  ages  of  ceramic 
industry.  No  one  can  fail  to  recognise  the  import- 
ance of  this  classification  in  the  history  of  Greek  art  ; 
it  is  through  the  succession  of  styles  that  we  can 
follow,  from  one  group  to  another,  the  development  of 
taste  in  general,  which  left  its  mark  on  painted  vases, 
as  well  as  on  the  most  beautiful  marbles.  It  should 
be  added  that  of  this  class  of  monuments  the  most 
numerous  specimens  are  preserved  ;  it  thus  offers  a 
continuous  series  from  the  beginnings  of  Greek  art 
to  the  time  of  decline. 

Painted  vases  range  themselves  at  once  into 
three  principal  groups,  each  of  which  has  several 
subdivisions  : — 

1.  VASES  OK  ANTIQUK  STYLE. 

2.  BLACK-FIGURED  VASES. 

3.  RED-FIGURED  VASES,  AND  VASES  OF  LATER  STYLE. 


280  GRKKK    ARCII.KOLOC.Y. 

\Ye  will  endeavour  to  state  briefly  the  characteris- 
tics in  technique  of  the  special  varieties  under  each  of 
these  groups.* 

§     I.    VASKS    OF    THE    AXTIoUE    STYLE. 

(1)  Santorin  pottery. — It    is   well   known   that  the 
vases   found  at   Santorin   under  the  pozzuolana,  and 
earlier  in  origin  than  the  submergence  of  the  island, 
are  among  the  most  ancient  remains  of  civilisation  in 
Hellenic  countries.!    They  go  back  as  far  as  eighteen 
or  twenty  centuries   15. r.     The  ornaments  that  deco- 
rate them  are  very  simple,  and    more  commonly  are 
taken  from  the  vegetable  kingdom.   One  characteristic 
feature  of  this  barbaric  pottery  is  the  imitation  of  the 
human    form,  and    in    particular  of  the   female   head 
and   bust,  which  the  potter  has  sought  to   reproduce 
in  modelling  in  clay. 

(2)  Vases  of  tJic  antique  style  of  tJie  Cyelades. — The 
designation    Phoenician  'vases  of  the   Cyelades,  some- 
times applied   to  these  vases,  is   far   from   being  ac- 
curate ;    it    is    admitted,  however,  that    the    date    of 
the   manufacture  of  this  pottery  coincides   with    the 
Phoenician  sway  in  the  Greek  .Archipelago,  and  is  not 
later  than  the  twelfth  or  thirteenth  century  B.C.    These 
vases  are  found  in  the  Greek  islands,  Milo,  Santorin 


*  Sec  A.  Dumont,  Peintures  ctramiifues  de  la  Grcce profr<. 

f  See  Book  i.,  chap.  i.  The  Museum  of  the  £cole  Fran<;aise  in 
Athens  possesses  a  rich  collection  of  unpublished  vases.  Several  are  re- 
produced in  the  work  by  MM.  Dumont  and  Chaplain,  Les  Ccramiijites 
de  la  Grhe  propre,  plates  I.  II. 


PAINTED   VASES.  28 1 

(Thera),*  Rhodes,  and  Cyprus.     These  vases  are  often 


FlG.    105. — VASE   OF   THE    PRIMITIVE   STYLE    OF   THE   CYCLADES. 

*  The  vases  of  this  style  from  Santorin  are  subsequent  in  origin  to 
the  submergence  of  the  island,  and  have  been  found  above  the 
pozzuolana. 


282  CKKF.K    AKCII.KOI.OC.V. 

great  jars,  with  a  grey  earth-coloured  ground,  decorated 
in  zones,  curved  lines,  zigzag  lines  drawn  in  dull  brown 
sometimes  heightened  by  a  retouching  of  lilac  or 
light  pink.  The  human  figure  no  longer  appears. 
The  specimen  here  given  (Fig.  105)  is  from  Thera  ; 
the  ground  of  the  clay  is  whitish,  and  its  decoration, 
consisting  of  concentric  circles,  of  /.ones,  and  of 
chevrons,  is  in  dark  brown  or  orange. 

(3)  /  'uses  with  geometric  decoration. — These  vases 
arc  found  all  over  Greece,  in  Mycenae,  in  yEgina,  in 
Attica,  etc.  The}'  arc  the  product  of  a  national  art, 
that  owed  nothing  to  foreign  imitations,  and  for  this 
reason  deserve  serious  examination.*  These  vases 
differ  from  the  type  of  the  Cycladcs  in  their 
regular  system  of  ornamentation,  which  is  essentially 
rectilinear  or  geometric.  The  most  important  group 
of  this  class  is  formed  by  pottery  found  at  Athens. 
It  is  to  these  vases  that  we  arc  indebted  for  the 
detail  of  the  ornamentation,  f 

The  forms  of  the  vases  vary  from  the  amphora 
down  to  the  smallest  cups.  The  paintings  are  done 
in  red-brown,  passing  sometimes  into  black,  upon  the 
reddish  ground  of  the  clay.  The  decoration  consists 
of  meander  patterns,  oblique  lines,  chevrons,  rosettes, 
concentric  circles,  often  most  carefully  executed  ;  on 


*  See  A.  Conzc,  Zur  Geschichte  der  Anfange  der  grief hischen  A'unst, 
1870-1873. 

t  See  Ilirschfeld,  Annali  dclf  lust.,  iS72.  The  pottery  of 
Mycena:  forms  the  subject  of  a  special  work,  of  which  a  portion  has 
already  appeared  :  Mykenische  ThongeJ(isset  by  Furtw  angler  and 
Lceschcke,  Berlin,  1879. 


PAINTED   VASES.  283 

some  vases  the  rosettes  are  outlined  with  compasses. 
It  is  quite  probable  that  this  pottery  was  nothing 
more  than  an  attempt  to  reproduce  the  decoration  of 
metallic  vases.  This  hypothesis  is  all  the  more 
plausible  in  that  certain  clay  tripods  betray  in  their 
forms  and  in  their  modelling  an  evident  imitation  of 
metallic  tripods.*  To  these  geometric  patterns  were 


FlG.    IO6. — GEOMETRIC    STYLE,    FROM    MYCEN/E. 
(From  Dr.  Schliemann's  ^lycence. ) 


often  added  representations  of  animals  :  horses,  stags, 
deer,  and  birds.  These  figures  of  animals,  executed 
rudely  and  awkwardly,  have  a  peculiar  type  of  their 
own,  which  prevents  them  from  being  confounded  with 
those  of  the  following  period,  where  Oriental  imitations 
are  very  clear.  The  human  figures,  which  are  arranged 
in  zones  on  Attic  vases  of  geometric  style,  have  all 

*  Conze,  I.e.,  plate  vu.;  Collignon,  Catal.des  Vases  prints  d' Athbies, 
No.  31. 


284  C.RKKK   AKCII.KOLOGV. 

the  characteristics  of  the  most  primitive  art  ;  they  are 
no  more  than  very  rude  silhouettes.  The  breast  is 
disproportionately  large,  the  waist  slender,  the  thighs 
have  an  exaggerated  development.  The  scenes 
represented  are  processions,  warriors  on  their  chariots, 
funeral  obsequies,  and  the  laying-out  of  the  dead 
(Trpodea-is}.*  The  plan  of  this  brief  sketch  makes 
it  impossible  for  us  to  enter  into  the  theories  to 
which  the  peculiar  characteristics  of  this  geometric 
style  have  given  rise.  It  is  sufficient  to  recall  the  fact 
that  this  style  is  found  in  northern  countries,  and  that 
it  must  have  been  common  to  the  Indo-Kuropcan 
people  before  it  broke  up  into  separate  branches. 
With  regard  to  pottery  of  this  kind  from  Greece 
it  must  be  admitted  that  no  date  later  than  the  tenth 
century  l!.C.  can  be  attributed  to  it.  Whether,  with 
Conze,  we  give  these  vases  the  name  1'clasgic,  or  a 
totally  different  name,  it  is  beyond  doubt  that  they 
were  manufactured  in  Greece  throughout  a  long 
period,  before  relations  with  the  Asiatic  Orient  had 
furnished  Greek  potters  with  the  models  which  after- 
wards became  the  inspiration  of  ceramic  art.  f 

(4)  I'ascs  from  Milo. — Oriental  influences  are 
clearly  apparent  upon  vases  found  at  Milo  that 
date  from  the  eighth  or  from  the  seventh  century  P..C. 


*  The  most  remarkable  specimens  are  in  the  office  of  the  Minister 
of  Education  in  Athens.  [Kijj.  107  represents  the  u>)otfe(m.  Certain 
vases  of  this  style  are  also  called  Dipylon  vases,  from  the  locality 
(Dipylon  at  Athens)  where  they  were  found.] 

t  This  style  was  preserved  much  later,  probably  through  the  influ- 
ence of  tradition. 


PAINTED   VASES. 


285 


By  the  side  of  rectilinear  decorations,  which  arc  sur- 
vivals of  the  ancient  geometric  style,  are  seen  zones 
of  animals  Oriental  in  character,  and  decorative  mor 
tives  peculiar  to  Asia,  such  as  chimaeras  face  to  face. 
At  the  same  time,  Greek  gods  are  figured  in  their  Hel- 
lenic forms.  These  vases  form  a  transition  series, 


FlG.    107.— FRAGMENT  OF  AN  ATHENIAN  VASE  OF  ANTIQUE  STYLE. 

and  are  nearly  contemporary  with  the  earliest  vases 
of  the  following  class. * 

(5)  Vases  of  the  Corinthian  or  Asiatic  style. — These 
vases  are  often  called  Corinthian  vases,  because  a 
number  of  them  have  been  found  in  tombs  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Corinth.  They  are  found,  how- 
ever, in  all  portions  of  the  Hellenic  world,  and  even 
in  Etrurian  tomb-cities.  The  distinctive  character- 
istic of  these  vases  is  their  decoration,  the  motives  of 
which  come  immediately  from  the  East.  On  them 

*  See  Conze,  Melische  Thongejasse,  1862. 


286 


CREEK    AKCII.-EOI.OGY. 


we    find     the    rosette    of   Assyrian    monuments   and 
figures  of  fantastic    beings,   half-human,  half-animal; 

birds  with  human  heads 
wearing  the  Oriental 
polus  ;  flying  personages 
with  wings  curved 
backward — all  of  them 
symbols  which  had  sig- 
nificance only  in  the 
East,  and  which  were 
copied  by  the  Greeks 
without  being  un  ler- 
stood.  The  most  fre- 
quent forms  of  this  class 
of  vases  are  the  spherical 
aryballus,  the  bombylius, 
the  alabastron,  and  the 
deep  cylix.  The  clay  is 
yellowish-white,  and  the 
paintings,  according  to 
the  period,  arc  dull  or 
more  vivid,  and  finally 
even  of  an  intense  black 
relieved  with  purple  and 
red.*  The  manufac- 
ture of  these  vases  con- 
tinued for  quite  a  long 
time,  up  to  the  period 
of  black-figured  vases 


FIG.   108. 

UOMBYLIUS  FROM  TANAGRA, 
CORINTHIAN  STYLE. 


*  The  Louvre  possesses  a  rich  collection  of  them.     Specimens  may 
be  found  in  the  work  of  M.  de  Longperier,  Musi-e  Nafiotion  III. 


PAINTED   VASES. 


28; 


properly  so  called.  As  it  is  very  difficult  to  class 
vases  chronologically,  we  must  limit  ourselves  to 
grouping  them  according  to  subjects  in  the  follow- 
ing order: — I,  vases  with  zones  of  animals  ;  2,  vases 
with  human  figures  ; 
3,  vases  with  mytho- 
logical subjects  and 
inscriptions. 

1 .  These     vases, 
which     are    of    large 
size,     are      decorated 
with     several      zones 
of    animals,    such    as 
lions,     goats,     tigers, 
antelopes,  usually 
figured      as    fronting 
each  other,  sometimes 
as    marching    in    file. 
The  colours  are  often 
retouched      in      pur- 
plish-red,   while     the 
details  of  the  muscles 
are  indicated  by  lines 
drawn     with     a     dry 
point.      Rosettes    fill 
up    the    field    of    the 
zones. 

2.  Upon  vases  with  figures   of  persons,  subjects 
taken  from  Greek  mythology  are  represented  between 
zones  of  animals.    This  decorative  system  is  borrowed 
directly    from    the    East.      The    Greeks    copied    it 


FlG.     lOQ. — CORINTHIAN    VASE   WITH 
ZONES   OF   ANIMALS. 


288  CREEK   ARCH.-EOLOCY. 

c-ithcr  from  stuffs  and  carpets  woven  in  the  East,  or 
from  metal  cups  of  Cyprus  or  of  Assyria,  through  the 
instrumentality  of  the  Phoenicians. 

3.  At  length,  in  the  seventh  century  H.C.,  inscrip- 
tions in  Corinthian  characters  appear  upon  vases 
with  mythological  subjects.  Persons  are  designated 
by  their  names,  traced  in  archaic  Greek  letters,  which 
are  those  of  the  Corinthian  alphabet  in  the  seventh 
century  i;.C.  The  most  remarkable  specimen  is  a 
pyxis  found  at  Mcrtcsc  (Dodwell  vase),  which  repre- 
sents the  Calydonian  Boar  Hunt.  Each  person  has 
his  name  :  Qepa-avSpos,  <&t\ov,  Aaicov,  Avbpvras,  Sarcis, 
A\ica,  Aoptpa^o^,  Aya/jie/jivov.  It  is  upon  vases  of 
this  series  that  the  earliest  signatures  of  artists  may 
be  read,  as  that  of  Chares,  or  that  of  Timonidas 
of  Corinth  on  a  vase  in  the  museum  at  Athens  repre- 
senting Achilles  watching  for  Troilus. 

The  manufacture  of  this  class  of  vases  was  certainly 
very  widely  extended.  Commerce  scattered  them 
in  all  parts  of  the  Hellenic  world  ;  they  arc  to  be 
found  in  Etruria,  and  the  presence  in  this  country 
of  the  Corinthian  colony  led  by  Dcmaratus  must 
have  contributed  to  bring  this  style  into  favour. 
Erom  Cervctri — ancient  Agylla  (or  Caere)  of  the 
Etruscans — come  the  greater  part  of  the  vases 
of  the  Corinthian  style  now  in  the  Louvre:*  they 
form  an  exceedingly  rich  collection,  without  its 
equal  in  Europe.  We  shall  mention  only  one  of  the 
best  known  vases  from  this  collection,  a  large  celebe, 

*  The  Campana  Collection. 


PAINTED   VASES.  289 

decorated  with  a  band  of  animals,  and  above  with  a 
half-zone  of  figures.  The  scene  represented  is  taken 
from  Homer,  and  represents  the  departure  of  Hector, 


FlG.  I IO.— CORINTHIAN   VASE,    WITH     FIGURES     OF   PERSONS   AND 
INSCRIPTIONS. — DEPARTURE  OF   HECTOR. 

who  is  about  to  mount  his  chariot.  The  persons  that 
surround  the  hero  are  Trojan  warriors  and  members 
of  the  family  of  Priam.  (Fig.  no.) 

There  is  a  general  agreement  in  dating  the  earliest 
of  these  vases  with  inscriptions  from  the  earlier  half  of 
T 


290  GREEK    ARCHEOLOGY. 

the  seventh  century  B.C.  (660  B.C.).  The  date  is  in  this 
case  of  great  importance,  as  it  enables  us  to  establish 
the  interesting  relations  existing  between  the  style  of 
vase-paintings  and  that  of  other  contemporary  monu- 
ments. \Yc  have  already  spoken  of  the  celebrated 
chest  of  Cypselus,"*  that  \vas  for  its  time  one  of  the 
wonders  of  metal-work  ;  the  style  of  the  figures  with 
which  it  was  covered,  the  arrangement  of  the  subjects 
upon  it,  its  inscriptions,  written  boustrophcdonft  t.t\, 
from  left  to  right  and  then  from  right  to  left 
alternately — all  these  items  arc  explained  by  an 
examination  of  Corinthian  vases.  Admitting  for  the 
chest  of  Cypsclus  the  date  of  the  thirtieth  Olympiad 
(660  B.C.),  we  sec  that  it  is  older  by  only  a  few  years 
than  the  most  ancient  Corinthian  vases.  It  cannot  be 
doubted  that  these  monuments  exhibit  the  same 
inspirations,  the  same  methods.  This  was  the  age 
when  Greek  genius  had  hardly  detached  itself  from 
Asiatic  influences.  By  the  side  of  subjects  purely 
Hellenic  arc  to  be  found  foreign  motives  of  decora- 
tion borrowed  from  the  East. 

The  manufacture  of  Corinthian  vases  reaches  back 
to  the  period  of  primitive  vases.  A  large  number 
of  these  ceramic  products  also  exhibit  the  technical 
methods  pursued  in  the  following  period,  and  nearly 
approach  the  black  -  figured  ware.  Thus  upon 
Corinthian  vases  of  the  later  type  the  flesh  of  female 
figures  is  painted  in  white,  as  are  also  the  long  tunic 

*  See  Book  I.,  ch.  iii.,  p.  29. 

f  Bovffrpo(f>r)86i>,   literally,   like  the  furrows  drawn   by  oxen,   that 
return  on  their  steps  at  the  end  of  each  furrow. 


PAINTED  VASES.  2QI 

of  the  charioteers,  and  the  episcma,  or  emblems,  on 
the  shields. 

A  more  detailed  system  of  classification  would 
make  a  place  at  the  beginning  of  the  following  class 
for  those  vases  in  which  the  principles  of  black- 
figure  painting  are  applied  at  the  same  time  with 
Asiatic  ornamentation.  We  must  here  confine  our- 
selves, in  order  not  unduly  to  multiply  divisions,  to 
specifying  the  class  of  vases  that  formed  the  transi- 
tion between  the  Corinthian  style  and  that  of  black- 
figured  vases. 

§    2. — BLACK-FIGURED    VASES. 

The  period  of  black-figured  vases  extends  from 
the  sixtieth  to  the  eightieth  Olympiad  (540  B.C. — 
460  B.C.),  not  to  mention  ceramic  products  of  a  later 
age,  in  which,  even  until  the  fourth  century  B.C.,  the 
same  process  was  revived  and  imitated.  The  style 
of  these  paintings,  like  that  of  the  primitive  mas- 
ters, has  all  the  marks  of  archaic  art :  stiff  figures, 
almost  always  represented  in  profile,  angular  action, 
faces  without  expression,  and  uniform  in  type.  We 
may  add  that  even  after  the  decline  of  painting 
in  black  these  characteristics  were  preserved  in  a  con- 
ventional way.  We  then  find  intentional  faults,  and 
awkwardnesses  too  skilfully  represented  to  be  genuine. 
Thus  Panathenaic  amphorae,  some  of  which  are  of 
the  time  of  Alexander,  exhibit  all  the  features  of 
archaic  paintings,  although  they  are  contemporary 
with  the  most  beautiful  red-figured  vases.  Here 
archaism  is  affected,  and  is  simply  conventionality. 

T    2 


2Q2  GREEK    AUCH.l.OI.OGV. 

\\"c  have  already  indicated  the  technique  of  painting 
in  black,  the  use  of  \vhitc  colour  to  distinguish 
women  from  men,  and  that  of  purplish-red  to  heighten 
the  effect  of  the  paintings.  It  is  unnecessary  to 
enlarge  further  upon  this  point. 

The  subjects  most  commonly  figured  on  this  class  of 
rases  are  taken  from  mythology,  and  principally  from 
the  Dionysiac  cycle.  Processions  of  gods  arc  very 
frequent,  and  these  vases  are  of  great  interest  in  the 
stud)r  of  the  plastic  types  of  Hellenic  divinities. 
Scenes  from  the  Trojan  \var,  the  Labours  of  Heracles, 
and  Attic  myths,  especially  the  myths  of  Theseus, 
furnished  these  vase-painters  with  most  of  their 
subjects. 

A  compendious  classification  enables  us  to  divide 
black-figured  vases  into  several  series,  the  principal 
of  which  are  the  following:  (i)  vases  with  white 
or  yellow  ground  ;  (2)  vases  of  the  style  of  Krgotimus 
and  of  Clitias  ;  (3)  vases  of  the  style  of  Nicosthcncs  ; 
(4)  vases  of  the  severe  style ;  (5)  PanathcnaYc  am- 
phora; ;  (6)  common  products. 

(i)  Vases  witJi  white  or  yd  low  ground. — Vases  of 
this  series,  where  black  figures  stand  out  upon  a  coat- 
ing of  yellowish  white,  are  still  very  rare.  The 
Cabinet  dcs  Medailles,  at  Paris,  possesses  an  interest- 
ing specimen,  known  as  the  Cup  of  Arcesilas. 
The  paintings  depict  this  person  (probably  a  king  of 
Cyrenaica)  *  seated  under  a  canopy,  surrounded  by 
attendants  who  are  engaged  in  weighing  in  balances 

*  Perhaps  the  victor  at   the  Pythian  games  in  the  seventy-eighth 
Olympiad  (466  B.C.),  whom  Pindar  celebrates  in  Pylh.  iv.  and  v. 


PAINTED   VASES.  293 

silphium,  a  precious  product  of  Cyrcna'ica,  much 
in  demand  in  Greece.*  To  the  same  series  belongs 
another  cup  in  the  Cabinet  des  Medailles,  representing 
Ulysses  and  his  companions  intoxicating  the  Cyclops 
Polyphemus,  and  putting  out  his  single  eye  with  a 
stake  heated  to  a  glow  in  the  fire. 

(2)  Vases  of  the  style  of  Ergotiuius  and  of  Clitias, 
—The  signature  of  these  two  artists^  is  read  with 
certainty  only  on  a  single  vase,  known  as  the 
Francois  Vase  of  the  Museum  of  Florence.  The 
style  of  painting  upon  this  vase  is,  nevertheless,  of 
sufficient  importance  to  mark  one  of  the  periods  in 
the  history  of  Greek  ceramic  painting.  The  vase  in 
question  is  one  of  the  wonders  of  the  art  of  black- 
figured  vases.  It  is  a  magnificent  amphora,  and  is 
decorated  on  the  body  with  three  zones  of  subjects. 
Two  other  zones  ornament  the  neck  and  the  foot ; 
even  the  handles  arc  covered  with  paintings.  The 
principal  subject  is  a  procession  of  divinities,  present 
at  the  marriage  of  Thetis  and  Pcleus,  in  seven  quad- 
rigae. Other  subjects  are  the  funeral  of  Patroclus, 
Achilles  pursuing  Troilus,  the  combat  between  the 
Lapithai  and  the  Centaurs,  the  Calydonian  Boar 
Hunt,  Theseus  and  Ariadne,  etc.  All  these  com- 
positions are  worked  out  with  singular  richness,  and 
are  treated  in  that  severe  archaic  style  which  lends 
such  a  charm  to  the  works  of  old  Greek  masters. 
This  vase,  which  is  of  rare  beauty,  makes  us  under- 

*  Figured,  with  colours,  in  Birch,  History,  etc.     It  can  hardly  be  re- 
garded as  a  caricature.   On  these  vases,  cf.  Puchstein,  Arc/i.Zcilitn^,  1881. 
t  Eucherus,  son  of  Ergotiinus,  is  also  known  by  hi.s  signature. 


294 


(iKEKK    AKCII.MOLOGY. 


stand  with  what  fertility  of  resource  the  metal-workers 
of  the  Dorian  schools  had  decorated  famous  monu- 
ments, such  as  the  throne  of  Amyclrean  Apollo,  known 

only   by   descriptions  of 
Greek  writers. 

(3)  f  "(Tst's  of  t/tc  style 
of  Nicostlicncs.  -  -  The 
vases  of  this  style  are 
easily  recognised  by  the 
firmer  drawing,  but 
principally  by  the  very 
characteristic  palmctte 
ornament  on  the  neck 
of  the  vase.  There 
is  in  them  an  elegant 
combination  of  lotus 
flowers  and  of  knots 
that  seems  peculiar  to 
Nicostlicncs  and  his 
school.  The  accompany- 
ing cut  shows  a  vase 
from  the  Louvre,  signed 
by  this  artist.  It  is  de- 
corated with  two  zones 
of  subjects,  one  of  which 

represents  the  Sphinx, and  perhaps  CEdipus.  (Fig.  1 1 1.) 
The  vases  signed  by  Nicostlicncs  arc  numer- 
ous. They  have  been  found  at  Vulci,  at  C.ere,  at 
Agrigcntum,  and  in  Attica.  It  is  clear  that  vases 
manufactured  by  him  were  very  celebrated,  and 
the  special  taste  that  characterises  his  works  made 


I'"IG.    III. — VASK   or    THE   S'lVI.K 
OK    NICOSTHKNES. 


PAINTED   VASES. 


295 


them  highly  prized  in  different  parts  of  the  Hellenic 
world. 


FlG.     112. — ULACK-FIGURED    HYDRIA. 

(Style  of  Timagoras. ) 

(4)    Vases  of  tJic  severe  style. — By  this   name  we 
paintings     in     which    colours     are     more 
rare    in    the    retouching,     the    effect    being    chiefly 


designate 


296  (iKKKK    AkCIM.Ol.OtiY. 

obtained  by  engraving  with  a  dry  point,  which  brings 
out  the  details  of  the  body  and  of  costume.  The  figures 
arc  drawn  with  great  energy,  and  with  an  evident 
desire  to  accent  their  anatomy.  At  the  same  time, 
all  trace  of  Oriental  ornamentation  has  disappeared. 
We  have  now  arrived  at  the  second  archaic  period. 
The  most  beautiful  specimens  of  this  class  are  con- 
temporaneous with  works  that  in  sculpture  imme- 
diately preceded  the  period  of  most  perfect  art.  The 
names  of  artists  most  frequently  found  on  vases  of 
the  severe  style  are  those  of  Timagoras,  Amasis, 
Tleson  son  of  Nearchus,  and  Ilcrmogcnes. 

The  Louvre  possesses  a  beautiful  series  of  these 
vases,  from  which  we  select  for  special  mention  the 
hydria  of  Timagoras,  which  exhibits  the  struggle  of 
Heracles  with  Triton  or  with  Ncrcus.  (Fig.  1 12.)  The 
severe  style  appears  with  all  its  characteristics  in  a 
painting  now  in  the  Museum  of  Athens.  It  is  a  dish 
found  at  Phalcrum,  with  a  painting  representing  the 
Arming  of  Achilles.  Thetis  carries  to  her  son  the 
divine  armour,  which  the  hero  is  putting  on,  in  the 
presence  of  Neoptolemus  and  1'eleus.* 

No  other  museum  in  Europe  possesses  a  work- 
to  be  compared  with  the  magnificent  amphora,  de- 
corated with  black  paintings,  found  at  Cape  Kolias, 
now  in  the  Museum  of  Athens  (Varvakcion).  The 
principal  subject  is  the  laying-out  of  a  corpse 
(Trpo&eais;).  Around  the  bed  women  \vccp  with  gestures 
of  grief,  and  seem  to  accompany  these  with  exclama- 

*  Collision,  Cn/al.  ,/ti  A/ita';  d\lth cues,  No.  231. 


PAINTED   VASES. 


297 


tions.  The  scene  has  a  striking  effect,  which  is  due  to 
the  austere  simplicity 
of  the  composition, 
and  the  expression  of 
sorrow  given  to  the 
faces.  The  qualities  of 
the  style  are  those  of 
an  epoch  that  has  at- 
tained perfection,  and 
black  -  figured  vase- 
painting  has  produced 
nothing  more  finished 
than  this  amphora. 

(5)  PanatJiena'ic 
ampJiorce.  -  -  These 
vases,  which  were 
given  as  prizes  to 
victors  in  the  Pan- 
athenaic  festival,  have 
marked  peculiarities 
of  their  own.  They 
are  in  the  form  of 
amphorae,  with  covers. 
The  painting  upon  the 
front  of  the  body  re- 
presents Athena  full}- 
armed,  poising  her 
lance  as  if  in  battle. 
On  each  side  of  the 
goddess  is  a  column, 
which  is  surmounted  FIG.  113.— PANATHENAIC  AMPHORA. 


298  GREEK   ARCH/liOLOGY. 

by  a  cock,  an  owl,  a  vase,  or  the  figure  of  a  person. 
In  the  field,  and  alongside  of  the  columns,  arc  to  be 
read  the  painted  inscriptions,  one  of  which  records  the 
purpose  of  the  vase,  Tf2N  A9HNH9EN  A9AMN 
("  prize  from  the  contests  at  Athens"*).  The  other  in- 
scription indicates  the  archon  eponymous  in  office  at 
the  time  of  the  contest.  The  painting  on  the  back  of 
the  vase  always  indicates  the  variety  of  contest  for 
which  the  prize  was  awarded.  These  vases  are  found 
in  museums  in  large  numbers,  and  were  exhumed  in 
various  parts  of  the  Hellenic  world,  such  as  Italy, 
Cyrenaica,  and  elsewhere.  Until  recently  Athens 
furnished  but  a  single  example.  \Vc  now  recognise 
Panathenaic  amphorae  in  several  fragments  found  in 
Athens  near  the  temple  of  Athena  Polias.  These  vases 
had  undoubtedly  been  consecrated  to  the  goddess. 
It  is  also  admitted  that  for  this  class  of  vases  black 
figures  arc  not  an  indication  of  antiquity.  Though 
the  archaic  style  is  still  followed,  it  is  only  through 
tradition,  for  the  names  of  archons  in  office  in  the 
fourth  century  li.C.  may  be  read  upon  them,  at  a 
time  when  art  was  far  removed  from  the  naive 
archaism  of  the  earlier  period. 

(6)  Common  products. — We  place  under  this  head- 
ing a  series  of  vases  of  which  great  numbers  arc  found 
in  museums,  especially  in  Athens.  They  have  been 
but  imperfectly  studied.  The  most  numerous  are 
lecythi,  decorated  with  paintings  rapidly  and  often 

*  On  the  oldest  vases  the  inscription  has  the  peculiarities  of  the 
ancient  Attic  orthography  ;  i.e.,  TONA0ENEOENA0AON,  rov  'MtvtQtv 
&0\oy. 


PAINTED   VASES.  299 

carelessly  executed.  Several  types  are  to  be  dis- 
tinguished in  this  series  of  vases :  i.  Those  of  the 
type  of  Phalerum  and  Bceotia,  recognisable  by  their 
awkward  forms,  and  by  the  yellow  tint  of  the  clay. 
Lecythi  of  Phalerum  have  upon  their  necks  a  cock 
between  two  ivy  leaves.  Ephebic  and  Dionysiac  scenes 
are  frequently  figured.  2.  Athenian  type ;  the  forms 
are  more  elegant,  and  Attic  myths  furnish  the  prin- 
cipal subjects  for  decoration.  3.  Locrian  type ;  the 
figures  are  drawn  in  black  upon  a  yellowish  ground. 
One  of  the  most  interesting  specimens  in  the  Museum 
at  Athens  represents  Dionysus  punishing  the  Tyr- 
rhenian pirates,  who  are  metamorphosed  into  dolphins. 
This  subject  is  also  found  on  the  frieze  of  the 
choragic  monument  of  Lysicrates  in  Athens.  (See 
ante,  p.  95.) 

S    T,.    RED-FIGURED    VASES    AND    VASES    OF    LATER    STYLE. 

«J         *-* 

Vases  of  this  class  are  by  far  the  most  numerous, 
and  the  varieties  of  style,  which  correspond  to  the 
advance  and  decline  of  art,  are  clearly  marked.  They 
have  certain  general  characteristics  that  are  in  direct 
contrast  with  those  of  black-figured  vases.  Every 
trace  of  conventionality  has  vanished  ;  artists  throw 
off  methods  laid  upon  them  by  tradition,  and  aim  at 
true  and  independent  expression.  Compositions  are 
less  overloaded  with  figures.  In  place  of  belts  with  a 
long  row  of  figures,  subjects  less  ambitious  are  found, 
especially  upon  vases  of  the  best  workmanship.  At 
the  same  time  the  execution  is  more  finished,  and  the 


3OO  <;KI:I;K  AKCII.I.<>I.<K;V. 

details  of  the  figures,  drapery,  ami  costume,  arc  treated 
with  exquisite  purity  of  taste. 

The  manufacture  of  these  vases  had  certainly 
begun  before  the  close  of  the  preceding  period.  \Ve 
kno\v  of  examples  that  show  the  simultaneous  em- 
ployment of  the  two  classes  of  painting.  Ik-sides, 
red-figured  vases  have  been  found  beneath  the  debris 
of  the  old  Parthenon,  burned  by  the  Persians  in  480 
i:.C.  (Olympiad  I, XXV.).  But  though  the  oldest  vases 
of  this  style  ma}'  have  been  contemporary  with  the 
later  black-figured  vases,  it  must  be  acknowledged 
that  the  new  style  was  not  slow  in  supplanting  the 
old,  and  that  the  age  of  red-figured  vases  coincides 
with  the  very  long  Hellenistic  period.  Materials  are 
wanting  by  which  precise  limits  may  be  fixed.  In  the 
view  of  most  scholars  the  manufacture  of  these  vases 
had  ceased  by  the  first  quarter  of  the  second  century 
i'».c.  The  Roman  senatus-consultum  on  the  Bacchanalia 
(186  P..C.),  interdicting  the  ceremonies  of  the  Bacchic 
cult,  would  at  the  same  time  have  put  an  end  to  the 
pottery  industry,  which  furnished  the  accessories 
necessary  for  these  festivals. 

The  vase-paintings  of  this  third  period  present  a 
great  variety.  They  may  be  grouped  into  scries,  the 
most  important  of  which  are  the  following  : — (i)  vases 
of  the  severe  style  ;  (2)  vases  of  the  second  period  of 
red-figured  ware  ;  (3)  vases  of  the  .Attic  style,  of  great 
elegance;  (4)  common  products;  (5)  vases  enriched 
with  gilded  ornaments  ;  (6)  vases  with  reliefs ;  (7) 
white  lecythi  of  Athens. 

(i)     Vases    of   the    seven-    style.— DC    \Yittc    well 


PAINTED   VASES.  301 

characterises  the  vase-paintings  of  this  period  :  — 
"  The  compositions  of  the  severe  style  have  some- 
what of  stiffness.  In  them  arc  again  found,  in  the 
expression  of  the  face,  the  forms  common  upon  black- 
figured  vases,  but  we  feel  that  art  is  about  ready 
to  break  the  barriers  that  obstruct  her  free  course. 
Hair  and  beard  arranged  and  treated  with  great  care, 
curled  locks,  garments  with  stiff  folds  falling  straight, 
characterise  the  severe  style."*  In  dating  these  vases 
we  cannot  go  further  back  than  the  first  years  of  the 
fifth  century  B.C.,  nor  come  down  later  than  the  begin- 
ning of  the  fourth  century  B.C.  This  is  the  epoch  of 
perfected  art,  of  the  great  schools  of  Attica  and  of 
Peloponnesus.  As,  however,  progress  is  not  made  at 
the  same  pace  in  the  domain  of  the  different  arts, 
vase-painters  remained  faithful  much  longer  than  did 
sculptors  to  a  certain  stiffness  of  form  which  was  not 
completely  given  up  until  the  fourth  century  B.C.  In 
spite  of  these  slight  differences,  it  is  plain  that  the  vase- 
paintings  of  this  epoch  reflect  the  style  of  the  wonderful 
fifth  century  B.C. ;  in  fact,  the  ceramic  artist  must  often 
have  received  inspiration  from  the  masters  of  paint- 
ing. By  means  of  a  magnificent  amphora  in  Munich, 
representing  the  rape  of  Orithyia  by  Boreas,  YVelcker 
has  established  the  affinity  between  the  style  of  this 
composition  and  that  of  Polygnotus,  who  flourished 
about  Olympiad  LXXX.  (460  B.C.).  The  Munich  vase 
reproduces  the  imposing  manner  of  the  painter  who 
decorated  the  Lesche  at  Delphi.  Museums  are  very 

*  De  Witte,  Etudes  sur  les  Vases  peints. 


3O2  GREEK   ARC1LEOLOGY. 

rich  in  vases  of  this  class,  but  in  the  front  rank  should 
be  placed  the  beautiful  amphora  of  the  Varvakeion  in 
Athens,  which  depicts  a  scene  of  lamentation  for  the 
dead,  and  a  procession  of  knights,  making  ready,  with 
lowered  lances,  to  form  an  escort. 

Without  delaying  to  multiply  examples,  we  will 
mention  the  principal  vases  bearing  the  names  of  artists, 
especially  those  that  betray  an  independent  manner. 
Andocidcs  was  one  of  the  earliest  artists  in  this  period. 
An  amphora  signed  by  him,*  of  a  style  still  stiff,  shows 
the  simultaneous  employment  of  black  and  red  paint- 
ings. Kpictctus  belongs  also  to  this  transition  period. 
Although  he  was  at  times  associated  with  Nicosthencs 
and  Ilischylus,  who  still  painted  in  the  black  style,  he 
placed  his  signature  only  on  reel-figured  vases  finely 
and  carefully  executed.  Sosias  excelled  equally  in 
the  rendering  of  details,  which  he  treated  with  rare 
power.  He  is  the  author  of  a  celebrated  cup  in  the 
Berlin  Museum  that  shows  on  the  inside  the  great 
divinities,  and  on  the  outside  Achilles  caring  for 
the  wounded  Patroclus.  Euphronius,  who  ordinarily 
attaches  the  verb  e-Trohja-ev  to  his  signature,  is  often 
associated  with  Cachrylion.f  Mis  name,  however,  is 
read  on  only  one  cup.  This  is  a  beautiful  piece  of 
work  of  the  best  style,  and  represents  on  the  outside 
the  exploits  of  Theseus,  and  on  the  interior  the  hero 
together  with  Athena  and  Amphitrite.  J  In  this 
composition,  which  is  of  a  severe  elegance,  DC  Witte 
recognises  a  more  or  less  direct  copy  of  the  paintings 

*  Bull.  deTInst.  arch.,  1845.          t  Cf.  Klein,  Euphromos,  1882. 
+  Edited  by  De  Witte,  Monuments g rccs  de  f  Association,  etc.,  No.  I. 


PAINTED   VASES.  3O3 

executed  by  Micon  for  the  Theseum  of  Athens.     The 


FlG.     114. — RED-FIGURED  CRATER. 
(Vase  of  Euphronius.) 

vase  of  Euphronius,  reproduced  in  Fig.  114,  is  a  crater 


304  r.REKK    ARCII.KOLOGY. 

in  the  Louvre,  representing  the  contest  between 
Apollo  and  the  giant  Tityus.  Cuchrylion  is  known 
by  about  ten  vases,  showing  compositions  drawn 
gracefully  and  elegantly,  but  still  impressed  with 
archaic  severity,  though  the  attitudes  of  the  figures  are 
more  supple  and  less  constrained.  \Yc  have  also  in 
this  period  the  works  of  1'ampha.His,  of  Dun's,  and  of 
Brygus.  The  signature  of  the  latter  is  upon  a  cup 
representing  the  last  night  in  the  history  of  Homeric 
Troy,  and  the  massacre  of  the  children  of  Priam. 

(2)  Vases  of  the  second  epoch  of  red-figured  ware. — 
In  the  fourth  century  iu\  vase-painting  participated 
in  that  evolution  in  art  which  brought  about  a  taste 
for  elegance  of  form.  As  in  painting  on  a  large  scale 
the  art  of  Zcuxis  and  Parrhasius  is  removed  from  the 
simple  religious  dignity  of  Polygnotus,  so  the  style  of 
the  ceramic  painters,  contemporary  with  the  later 
artists,  shows  the  same  studied  effort  after  elegance 
and  grace.  Robust,  manly  forms  give  place  to  youth- 
ful figures  ;  to  stiff  attitudes  succeed  charming  poses, 
simple  and  natural  ;  the  folds  of  drapery  become 
more  graceful,  and  float,  as  it  were,  about  the  body, 
instead  of  permitting  the  contours  to  be  seen  under 
their  translucent  folds,  as  in  the  severer  style.  To 
this  period  belong  the  beautiful  amphora.'  from  Nola, 
which  are  the  ornament  of  the  Naples  Museum,  such 
as  the  vase  depicting  the  last  night  of  Troy,  and  the 
stamnus  representing  Bacchantes.  We  mention  also, 
from  the  Museum  of  the  Louvre,  a  charming  cup,  re- 
presenting the  poet  Linus  (Awo?)  giving  a  lesson  in 
singing  or  in  reading  to  young  Musajus  (Movaaios), 


PAINTED   VASES.  305 

who  holds  his  tablets  in  his  left  hand,  while  his  master 
is  unfolding  a  roll  of  papyrus.  The  subjects  treated 
on  vases  of  the  fourth  century  B.C.  are  freer,  and  less 
exclusively  mythological.  The  fancy  of  the  artist 
busied  itself  with  scenes  of  daily  life.  A  cup  from 
Vulci  shows  us  a  veritable  idyl.  Two  young  men  are 
conversing  with  a  man  of  mature  age  seated  upon  a 
rough  stool.  One  of  the  young  men  points  at  a 
swallow,  and  exclaims,  "  Look  !  a  swallow  !  "  (ISov 
%e\i<!>cov').  "  Yes,  by  Heracles  !  "  (Ntj  rov  'HpaxXea) 
replies  the  older  man.  "  It  twitters!"  (aurel)  replies 
the  younger  lad.  "  Spring  has  come  "  (^'Eap  ?/§?;)  is 
the  conclusion  drawn  by  the  bearded  man.  It  would 
be  impossible  to  treat  a  scene  like  this  with  a  simpler 
grace.  It  might  be  entitled  "The  Return  of  Spring."* 
(3)  Joist's  of  tJic  Attic  style. — It  is  easy  to  see 
that  the  more  we  advance  into  the  fourth  century 
B.C.,  the  more  do  we  find  the  pure  Attic  style  tend- 
ing to  prevail  in  the  pottery  of  Greece  proper.  At 
the  same  period  the  differences  between  purely 
Greek  productions  and  those  of  Italy  grow  more 
distinct.  We  must,  therefore,  make  a  special  series 
of  vases  of  the  Attic  style,  the  characteristics  of 
which  arc  strongly  defined.  This  delicate  pottery 
is  generally  in  the  form  of  vases  of  small  size,  like 
the  pyxis,  cenochoe,  aiyballus,  etc.  ;  they  may  be 
easily  recognised  by  the  beautiful  black  of  their  coat- 
ing, by  garlands  of  myrtle  with  pointed  leaves  often 
serving  as  a  decoration,  but  above  all  by  the  extreme 

*  Men.    iticditi  dell'   lint.,   Vol.   IL,   pi.   xxiv.      [The    inscriptions 
are    1AOXELIAON    NETONHEPAKLEA  I3TTAH   (reversed)   EAPEAE.] 

U 


306  GREEK   ARCH. EULOGY. 

delicacy   of   their    painting.      Athenian   artists   alone 


'''Illlfl 

IK,.    MV      IK,V;MI.NT  01-   A   M«>N\SI.M 
I  'poii  a  ivil-fii;\irr<l  ;ii  \  1  .illus.  ) 


seem   to  have  possessed  the  lightness  of  touch   and 


PAINTED   VASES. 


307 


exquisite  delicacy  of  style  which  are  shown  on  this 
class  of  vases. 

European  museums  possess  some  beautiful  ex- 
amples of  these  vases.  One  of  the  most  remark- 
able is  the  aryballus  of  the  Naples  Museum,*  which 
represents  the  battle  of 
the  Amazons  and  Athe- 
nians. Though  found  at 
Cumae,  the  vase  has  all 
the  characteristics  of  the 
Attic  style,  and  has 
nothing  in  common  with 
the  Italo-Greek  pottery 
of  the  same  epoch. 
Qualities  purely  Attic 
appear  also  on  the  paint- 
ing upon  an  aryballus, 
found  at  yExone,  show- 
ing Dionysus  and  his  train.  The  gracefulness  of 
attitudes,  the  facial  expressions,  and  the  exquisite 
lightness  of  the  work,  render  it  a  masterpiece. 
Though  Athenian  vase-painters  continued  to  receive 
inspirations  from  mythology,  they  also  frequently  em- 
ployed motives  suggested  by  every-day  life.  The  col- 
lection in  the  Varvakeion  is  rich  in  Attic  vases  in  which 
scenes  of  indoor  life  are  figured :  f  ladies  at  their  toilette, 
or  visiting;  the  women's  apartments,  where  women  arc 
spinning  and  talking  ;  scenes  of  betrothal  and  courtship, 
in  which  winged  Loves  interpret  the  sentiments  of  the 

*  Kaccolta  Citwana,  No.  239  of  the  catalogue  by  lleydemann. 
t  Catalogue  du  Musee  cfAthmes,  Nos.  406 — 499. 
U  2 


FlG.   Il6. — ON  A  SMALL  RED-FIGURED 
LECYTHUS. 

(Museum  at  Athens.) 


3OS  flKF.KK    ARCH.KOLOGY. 

persons  represented.  The  scries  is  large  and  varied. 
Artists  by  no  means  disdained  to  adorn  with  great 
care  the  smallest  vases,  which  were  used  as  children's 
toys,  and  were  decorated  with  compositions  sug- 
gested by  the  sports  of  childhood.  Nothing  is  fuller 
of  life  and  spirit  than  these  tiny  subjects  treated  in  an 
animated  way,  in  which  children  arc  seen  dragging 
their  carts,  riding  on  the  back  of  a  dog,  or  pushing 
wheels  before  them  with  long  sticks.  It  is  family  life, 
taken  from  nature  and  treated  with  perfect  art. 

(4)  Vases  of  common  workmanship, — These  vase:; 
arc  found  in  great  numbers  in  our  museums,  and  are 
more  or  less  carelessly  executed.  They  possess  no 
characteristics  clearly  enough  defined  to  allow  of  their 
being  classified  with  one  of  the  preceding  series.  In 
general  they  arc  of  great  si/.e,  like  the  hydria,  calpis, 
celebc,  crater,  or  amphora,  and  to  these  differences  of 
classes  frequently  correspond  differences  of  subject. 
One  of  the  most  frequent  motives  found  upon  am- 
phora; is  that  of  betrothal  or  of  wedding  processions, 
at  which  are  present  the  nympheutria  and  women 
bearing  presents — vases  or  jewels  enclosed  in  caskets. 
Pelicaj  and  hydride  frequently  offer  subjects  from 
ordinary  life  :  pictures  of  interiors,  representing 
women  seated  and  at  work,  surrounded  with  tame 
birds;  sometimes  also  toilette  scenes.  Cratcne  and 
canthari  are  decorated  with  Dionysiac  subjects  :  Dio- 
nysus, crowned  with  parsley,  bearing  the  thyrsus,  and 
surrounded  by  Bacchantes  and  satyrs,  who  carry 
canthari  and  prochooi.  This  class  of  subjects  is  espe- 
cially common  on  vases  from  B<eotia.  These  vases 


TAINTED   VASES.  309 

may  be  recognised  by  their  execution,  which  is  some- 
times negligent,  and  by  the  heavy  style  of  the  palm- 
leaf  ornament  which  accompanies  the  paintings.  There 
are  many  examples  in  the  Museum  of  Athens. 

(5)  Vases  witJi  gilded  ornaments,  and  ivitli  reliefs 
JieigJitened  with  gold* — During  the  most  brilliant 
period  of  ceramic  art  among  the  Greeks,  the  decoration 
of  vases  attained  great  richness,  with  the  aid  of  paint- 
ing in  polychrome  and  of  gilding.  At  the  close  of  the 
fourth  century  B.C.  it  was  a  general  custom  to  gild 
certain  parts  of  the  costume,  such  as  fillets,  earrings, 
beads  in  necklaces,  berries  in  laurel  garlands  or  in 
myrtle  wreaths,  which  are  found  on  vases  as  subor- 
dinate ornaments.  The  gilding  was  done  by  means  of 
leaves  of  beaten  gold  laid  upon  low  reliefs  or  upon 
small  bosses  of  clay  paste.  Upon  the  small  vases  of 
Attic  style,  such  as  aryballi  and  oenochooe,  the  gilding 
is  frequently  applied  with  careful  discrimination,  but 
upon  large  vases  it  is  profusely  lavished.  Vivid  colours 
heighten  the  effect  of  the  painting,  and  tints  of  red, 
green,  white,  and  violet,  applied  to  draperies,  united 
their  brilliancy  with  that  of  the  gold. 

One  of  the  most  beautiful  vases  among  those  in 
which  gold  and  varied  colours  are  found  together, 
is  a  pelice  found  at  Cameirus,  now  in  the  British 
Museum.  The  painting  represents  the  abduction  of 
Thetis  by  Peleus.  The  peplus  that  the  goddess  lets 
fall  is  sea-green,  with  a  white  border  ;  her  ornaments, 

*  See  J.  de  Witte,  Revue  archeologiquc,  Vol.  VII.  ;  Otto  Jahn, 
Ueber  bemalte  Vasen  mit  Goldschmuck,  1865  ;  M.  Collignon,  Trois 
Vases peints  de  la  Grcce  propre  a  Ornements  dorfs,  in  A'tv.  arch.,  1875. 


310  C1RRKK    AKCILKOLOCY. 

and  those  of  the  Nereids  in  her  train,  arc  richly  gilded. 
Among  the  gilded  vases  ot  the  Museum  at  Athens  we 
\vill  mention  a  pretty  aryballus,  on  which  Athena  is 
represented  crowning  Pclops  after  his  victor}',  in 
front  of  the  statue  of  Athena  Cydonia,  unto  whom 
the  hero  had  sacrificed  before  beginning  the  contest. 
Tin's  vase,  which  was  found  in  Attica,  is  of  unusual 
purity  of  style,  and  is  a  good  example  of  painted 
vases  of  small  size,  where  gold  is  applied  with  the 
moderation  demanded  by  the  limited  proportions  of 
the  subjects  figured. 

It    had     been    believed    for  some  time,  and   with 
probability,  that  vases  richly  decorated  with  gold  were 
of  exclusively  Athenian  manufacture;   their  delicacy 
of  style  seemed  to  suggest  that  origin.     Ikit  as  the 
number  of  common   vases  discovered  has  increased, 
the  conviction  has  grown  that  these  must  have  been 
manufactured    in    very    different    places  ;    outside    of 
Attica,  Boeotia,  Megaris,  and  Corinth  have  furnished 
remarkable  examples.     This  luxury  in  ornamentation 
was  not   peculiar  to  Athens  ;   it   was  found,  without 
doubt,   in   the   principal    establishments   for  the    pro- 
duction of  vases  in  the  Hellenic  world,  and  the  artists 
of  Corinth,  in  this  respect,  could  rival  those  of  Athens. 
There    is    a    whole    class    of   vases    where    paint- 
ings   arc    replaced    by    figures     modelled    in    relief, 
and  applied,  as  a  sort  of  frieze,  to  the  body  of  the  vase. 
Though  vases  of  this  kind  arc  rare,   they  take  rank 
among    the  wonders  of    Greek    ceramic    art.      The 
most  beautiful   of  them  show  the  combined    employ- 
ment  of  all   the  resources  of  decorative   art — relief, 


PAINTED  VASES.  311 

polychromy,  and  gilding.  We  must  give  a  place 
among  the  first  to  the  famous  Cumse  vase,  once  in 
the  Campana  collection,  but  no\v  in  the  Hermitage 
Museum  in  St.  Petersburg.  The  groundwork  of 
the  vase,  covered  with  a  brilliant  black  coating,  is 
fluted  ;  the  principal  group  of  figures  in  relief  is  made 
up  of  Triptolemus  and  the  Eleusinian  goddesses.  In 
the  second  frieze  are  represented  lions,  dogs,  panthers, 
griffins — likewise  gilded.  The  marvellous  work  in 
the  modelling,  the  richness  of  the  gilding,  the 
brilliancy  of  colour  lavished  upon  garments,  make 
this  vase  one  of  the  most  valuable  monuments  of 
ceramic,  as  well  as  of  plastic,  art.  Similar  qualities 
distinguish  an  aryballus  found  at  Kcrtch  in  the  Crimea. 
The  subject  represented  is  a  hunting  scene,  in  which 
young  Darius  and  his  companions,  Abrocomas,  Sei- 
samesj  Euryalus,  and  Eurus  take  part.  The  signa- 
ture of  an  Athenian  artist  named  Xenophantus  is 
affixed  to  this  vase.  The  date  is  about  the  one 
hundredth  Olympiad  (380  B.C.).* 

Sometimes  relief  is  combined  with  painting. 
This  is  the  case  in  another  vase  from  Kertch,  repre- 
senting the  dispute  between  Athena  and  Poseidon. 
These  two  divinities,  alone  modelled  in  relief,  occupy 
the  central  part  of  the  composition.  In  this  group 
may  be  recognised  an  imitation  of  the  statues  that 
formed  the  central  subject  of  the  western  pediment 
of  the  Parthenon. 

*  XENO*ANTO2  EFIOIH2EN  A0HN  [atos].  Antiqui!es  dit  Bos- 
phore  Cimnicricn,  1854.  Plates  XLV.,  XLVI.  [Cf.  on  many  tf  these 
vases  from  Kertch,  C.  T.  Newton,  Essays,  1880,  p.  373  ff.\ 


312  (JKF.KK    AKCM.V.oi.OCV. 

(6  I'tis.s  icith  ri tiffs. — In  this  class  of  vases  the 
reliefs  were  modelled  separately,  and  applied  after- 
wards.* But  we  can  easily  understand  that  the 
inventive  genius  of  the  Greeks  mu.st  have  imagined 
other  systems  of  decoration  into  which  reliefs  should 
enter.  Such  a  system  is  found  in  vases  adorned  with 
bas-reliefs  that  were  produced  by  means  of  a  stamp, 
or  of  hollow  moulds,  impressed  upon  the  clay  while 
yet  undried.  This  process  is  very  ancient  ;  we  find 
it  used  on  vases  of  a  very  remote  period.  Decorated 
according  to  this  system  are  cups  from  Megara,  vases 
hemispherical  in  form,  with  black  varnish,  upon  which 
are  represented  scenes  from  the  myths  of  Dionysus. 
\Yc  have  already  described  receptacles  in  the  form  of 
statuettes,  or  figurines,  where  the  neck  and  orifice  are 
all  that  remind  one  of  the  principle  of  the  vase.t  In 
this  direction  there  were  no  bounds  to  the  fantasy  of 
the  artist.  It  would  be  difficult  to  specify  all  the 
combinations  created  by  whim,  or  by  a  taste  for 
novelty. 

(7)  \Vliitc  Lccytlii  from  AtJicns.\ — It  is  here  proper 
to  bestow  some  attention  upon  an  extremely  inter- 
esting class  of  vases,  not  found  outside  of  .Attica. 


*  This  process  in  the  technique  may  l>c  clearly  seen  on  a  vase  in  the 
form  of  a  flat  gourd  in  the  Museum  at  Athens;  the  ba>-relief,  represent- 
ing the  battle  of  the  Ama/ons,  has  become  loosened  in  places. 

t  See  G.  Treu,  Griefhischc  Tliongcjatst  in  Stalncltcn-  itini  Hiistcn- 
/ortfiy  1875. 

J  See  O.  Benndorf,  Gricchisdie  ttnJ  Siiilisdic  Vascnbildcr,  1869 — 
1883,  and  the  study  especially  devoted  to  this  class  of  vases  by 
E.  Puttier,  1  cs  Lccythcs  blancs  (ittiijita>  a  Representations  funcrains, 
1883. 


PAINTED   VASES. 


313 


These  vases  are  of  uniform  type,  and  have  very 
clearly  defined  characteristics.  They  arc  all  in  the 
form  of  elongated  lecythi  ;  the 
body  is  adorned  with  a  white  coat- 
ing-, very  bold  in  colour,  easily 
erased  by  the  finger-nail.  Upon 
this  coating  are  painted  figures 
usually  relieved  with  bright  colour. 
The  drawing  is  made  in  reddish- 
brown.  A  very  brilliant  black 
varnish  covers  the  neck  and  the 
foot. 

Lccythi  of  this  class  are  often 
found  in  Attic  tombs,  but  never 
elsewhere.*  This  is  explained  by 
the  use  to  which  these  lecythi  were 
put.  They  played  an  important 
part  in  Athenian  rites  relating 
to  the  cult  of  the  dead.  We  know 
that,  together  with  beliefs  com- 
monly held  throughout  Greece,  each 
district  had  its  special  customs, 
its  own  funeral  ceremonies,  and 
other  practices  with  regard  to  the 
dead.  Those  of  Attica  were  very 
peculiar,  and  it  can  easily  be  believed 
that  a  class  of  industry  belonging 
especially  to  these  observances  might  never  have 
passed  the  limits  of  the  country.  It  was  only  at 

*  These  vases,  though  rare  in  most  European  museums,  are  very 
common  in  Athenian  collections. 


FIG.    117. 

WHITE    LECVTHUS 

FROM  ATHENS. 


r.KKKK    ARCH.KOLOGY. 

Athens  that  these  vases  were  made,  which  as  far  back 
as  Aristophanes  were  spoken  of  as  associated  with 
death.  The  comic  poet  speaks  of  one  "  who  paints 
lecythi  for  the  dead."*  Monuments  also  show  that 
they  figured  in  the  ceremony  of  the  laying-out  of  the 
dead  (Trpodecri^. 

The  reference  in  Aristophanes  proves,  moreover, 
that  white  lecythi  were  manufactured  as  earl}-  as  392 
15. C.  It  is  probable  that  this  manufacture  con- 
tinued throughout  the  fourth  century  B.C.,  and  did 
not  cease  until  the  end  of  the  third  century  li.c. 
There  arc  no  specimens  of  white  lecythi  of  archaic 
style.  The  specimens  most  carefully  executed 
plainly  indicate  their  date  as  that  of  the  highest 
perfection  of  Attic  style,  and  vases  of  this  class  are 
not  found  in  tombs  of  the  Roman  epoch.  These 
facts  afford  sufficient  reasons  for  limiting  the  manu- 
facture of  white  lecythi  to  two  or  three  centuries. 

Subjects  figured  on  these  vases  have  in  common  the 
characteristic  of  being  suggested  by  customs  connected 
with  burial.  With  the  marble  stela:,  they  arc  the  most 
important  and  trustworthy  materials  for  the  study  of 
the  history  of  the  cult  of  the  dead  in  Attica.  The 
traditional  form  of  these  customs,  and  the  respect  of 
the  Athenians  for  rites  that  had  to  do  with  their 
deepest  feelings,  did  not  permit  the  ceramic  artist  any 
great  variety  of  subjects.  The  paintings  upon  lecythi 
confine  themselves  mostly  to  the  following  subjects  : — 

Offerings  at  tJic  stele  of  the  dead ;  the  lamentation. 

*  Aristophanes,    Etck?.,  995. 


PAINTED   VASES. 


315 


— The  scene  of  the  offering  is  ordinarily  conceived  in 
a  very  simple  manner.  From  each  side  of  the  stele 
adorned  with  fillets  approach  persons  holding  in 
their  hands  the  objects  with  which  they  would  do 
homage  to  the  dead,  viz.,  tarn  ire  or  fillets  with  which 
to  decorate  the  stele,  a  canistrum  or  flat  basket 


FlG.    Il8. — THE    OFFERING   AT    THE    STELE. 

(White  Lecythus  from  Athens.) 

with  fruits  and  cakes,  sometimes  a  fowl,  as  on  a 
lecythus  in  the  Varvakeion  in  Athens.*  (Fig-  nS.) 
Not  infrequently  one  of  the  persons  represented 
is  an  ephebus  clad  for  war,  or  for  a  journey, 
who  seems  to  have  returned  to  fulfil  the  due 
funeral  rites  at  the  tomb  of  a  parent.  This  scene  may 
also  be  more  complex.  Thus,  upon  a  beautiful 
lecythus f  a  young  lad  holding  a  lyre  advances  towards 


*  No.  661  in  the  Catalogue. 


t  No.  650  in  the  Catalogue. 


3 1 6  r.KKKK  ARcir.r.oi.or.v. 

the  stele,  led  by  an  older  man  wearing  a  ehlamys  of 
sombre  hue.  The  presence  of  the  soul  of  the  dead  is 
indicated  1)}'  a  curious  detail.  A  small  winged  figure 
(the  ^ru^'j  or  the  et'SwXoy  of  the  dead)  hovers  near  the 
monument,  as  if  moved  by  the  sound  of  the  lyre.  \Ye 
were  already  aware  that  Attic  genius  did  not  shrink 
from  treating  the  conception  of  death  upon  the 
stela?,  but  did  it  with  great  moderation.  Lccythi  con- 
firm the  testimony  of  stel;e  on  this  point.  On  several 
vases  the  dead  person  herself  seems  to  receive  the  offer- 
ings. She  is  represented  as  a  woman  on  whose  face  is 
an  expression  of  sadness.  Resting  upon  her  elbow, 
which  lies  on  the  low  back  of  her  chair,  she  is  seated 
at  the  base  of  her  own  monument,  and  seems  to 
accept  the  gifts  \vhich  living  friends  are  bringing 
unto  her.  This  is  the  subject  represented  upon  a 
polychrome  lecythus  of  exquisite  style.*  The  person 
seated  at  the  foot  of  the  stele  has  her  head  inclined, 
and  the  face  has  a  peculiar  charm  in  its  features.  A 
woman  bringing  offerings  turns  to  look  at  a  little  girl 
who  follows. 

The  scene  of  the  lamentation  is  only  a  variation  of 
the  preceding.  It  represents  persons  grouped  about 
the  stele  in  attitudes  of  sorrow,  and  with  hands  raised 
to  the  head  making  the  significant  gesture  of  mourn- 
ing. Certain  details  deserve  to  be  noted.  One  vase 
shows  us  a  woman  kneeling  upon  the  steps  of  the 
stele,  with  body  bent  forward  as  though  she  were 
speaking  with  the  dead,  and  were  reproaching  him 

*  No.  637  in  the  Ca'aloguc. 


PAINTED    VASES.  317 

for  having  left  her.*  Even  at  the  present  day,  in 
some  districts  of  Greece,  the  custom  of  chanting 
myrologiics  or  lamentations  for  the  dead  is  still 
preserved. 

The  toilette. — At  the  foot  of  a  mortuary  monu- 
ment sits  the  dead  woman,  receiving  homage. 
Her  female  attendants  bring  to  her  her  articles  of 
attire.  The  character  of  these  representations, 
generally  very  thoughtful,  shows  with  what  delicacy 
Attic  genius  aimed  to  alleviate  the  sadness  of  the 
idea  of  death.  A  white  lecythus,  a  masterpiece  of 
ceramic  art,  presents  this  scene  of  the  funereal  toilette 
with  rare  beauty.  The  dead,  richly  robed,  throwing 
back  her  veil  with  a  graceful  gesture,  seems  to  return 
once  more  to  terrestrial  life.  Her  favourite  bird  is 
perched  upon  the  back  of  her  hand  ;  her  women 
bring  her  a  fan,  with  vases  of  perfumes.  Did  not 
the  stele  remind  us  of  the  funereal  intent  of  the  paint- 
ing, we  should  believe  ourselves  looking  upon  a  scene 
in  ordinary  life. 

The  laying-out  of  the  dead. — Here  the  idea  ot 
death  appears  in  all  its  reality.f  The  dead  man, 
crowned  with  flowers,  lies  upon  his  funeral  bed  ; 
fillets  and  garlands  adorn  the  ground  of  the  vase, 
suggesting  the  decoration  of  the  hall  of  mourning. 
Near  the  bed  a  large  lecythus  makes  known  to  us  the 

*  Cf.  liennclorf,  op.  cit.,  plate  XXIV.  I — 3,  "Women  tearing  their 
hair  before  a  monument."  The  painting  is  careless,  but  the  ex- 
pression is  very  truthful. 

t  One  of  the  best  specimens  is  a  polychrome  lecythus  of  the  Museum 
of  Vienna.  O.  Eenndorf,  op.  cit.,  plate  xxxm. 


318  C.KKKK    AKCII.KOI.OGV. 

part  played  by  this  vase  in  the  ceremonies  of  the 
TrpoOea-tf.  The  relatives  of  the  dead  arc  yielding  to 
demonstrations  of  grief.  Sometimes  a  small  winged 
figure  flies  near  the  bed,  image  of  the  living  breath  or 
soul  just  breathed  from  the  body.  All  the  details  of 
the  scene  are  drawn  with  precision.  The  funereal  rites 
of  Athenians  would  leave  nothing  to  accident.  The 
provisions  of  the  law  on  these  points  arc  well  known  ; 
such  as  the  decree  of  lulis  at  Ccos,  which  regulated 
minutely  all  funeral  ceremonies,  and  the  decree  of 
Solon,  declaring  obligatory  the  rites  of  TrpuOear^. 
Ceramic  painters  in  these  designs  were  only  repro- 
ducing scenes  familiar  to  all  Athenians. 

Burial  in  tlic  tomb. — This  subject  is  rarely  found 
upon  white  Iccythi  of  Athens;  and  yet  one  of  the  vases 
representing  it  is  a  perfect  masterpiece.  Two  winged 
genii  sustain  with  great  care  the  body  of  a  young 
woman,  which  they  arc  about  to  deposit  in  the  tomb 
excavated  at  the  foot  of  the  monument.  A  young 
man,  standing  near  the  stele,  looks  upon  the  scene 
with  sadness.  The  image  of  the  reality  gives  place 
to  an  interpretation  of  the  idea  of  death,  treated 
with  the  purest  taste.  It  is  an  ideal  scene,  to  which 
the  marvellous  excellence  in  style,  the  attitudes  of 
the  figures,  and  the  graceful  lines  of  the  body  of  the 
young  maiden,  who  seems  asleep,  have  lent  an 
enduring  charm.  (Fig.  I  19.) 

Charon  and  his  bark. — \\  e  find  here  once  more 
the  beliefs  of  the  current  mythology.  The  Museum 
of  Athens  possesses  several  fine  instances  of  this 
scene,  where  Charon,  leaning  upon  his  oar,  wearing  a 


PAINTED   VASES. 


319 


sailor's  cap,  is  making  ready  to  receive  into  his  bark 
persons  standing  at  the  water's  edge. 


D    O 

•s  c: 

!  3 

^  •£ 
«   >> 


Other    subjects,    less    frequently    found,    are    the 
scenes    of    the    Farcivell,     so     often    figured     upon 


32O  CKKF.K    AKCI!.l-:oLO(]V. 

marble  ;  of  the  mounted  soldier  fighting  with  an 
enemy  on  foot ;  of  figures  of  divinities,  as  of  Demeter 
and  Triptolemus  ;  also  Ilpitapliia,  or  scenes  com- 
memorative of  funeral  ceremonies. 

It  will  be  observed  that  all  these  scenes  depicted 
upon  vases  arc  intimately  related  to  the  (ireek  views 
of  death.  They  afford  invaluable  aid  in  the  study  of 
marble  stela,*,  for  they  are  inspired  by  the  same  beliefs 
and  sentiments  that  sculptors  had  rendered  upon 
funereal  bas-reliefs.  The  paintings  on  lecythi  arc- 
most  expressive  and  surest  ive.  While  conven- 
tionality may  have  had  a  certain  .share  in  sculptures 
that  were  under  the  control  of  the  traditions  of  art, 
it  is  less  evident  in  these  paintings,  which  were  often 
executed  by  indifferent  potters,  to  satisfy  the  demands 
of  popular  beliefs. 

The  style  of  these  paintings  is  also  of  peculiar 
interest.  We  have  already  mentioned  the  most 
beautiful  specimens,  those  of  more  finished  execution, 
that  may  be  compared  with  stehe  of  the  best  style. 
But  many  of  these  paintings  show-  indifferent  work- 
manship. This  is  true  of  the  majority  of  them.  They 
deserve,  nevertheless,  to  be  closely  studied  ;  imperfect 
as  they  ma}'  be,  they  still  strikingly  remind  us, 
among  other  things,  of  the  Athenian  type,  na'ivcly 
rendered,  such  as  the  long  nose,  the  strongly  marked 
chin,  all  the  features  that  archaic  masters  copied  with 
such  care,  and  that  disappeared  from  sculpture  in 
the  classical  epoch.  At  the  same  time,  underneath 
the  carelessness  of  the  work,  is  distinctly  felt  the 
artistic  tradition,  that  impressed  itself  upon  the 


PAINTED   VASES.  321 

humblest  draughtsman.  In  the  attitudes  of  the 
figures,  in  the  arrangement  of  the  draperies,  we  find 
the  marks  of  the  noble  style.  No  examples  could 
better  show  how  popular  was  art  in  Athens,  and 
how  it  found  a  place  even  in  the  smallest  creations  of 
this  gifted  people. 

We  cannot  follow  ceramic  art  into  the  period  of 
decline,  represented  principally  by  products  in  Magna 
Graecia.  The  vases  of  Sant'  Agata  dci  Goti,  of  Ruvo, 
and  of  Armento,  in  Italy,  show  how  far  the  exag- 
geration of  forms,  the  careless  use  of  colours  and  of 
ornaments,  and  the  taste  for  the  bizarre,  rapidly  led 
this  species  of  industry  away  from  the  simple  and 
noble  traditions  that  had  given  to  it  its  high  honour. 


322 


CHAPTER    IV. 

TKKKA-COTTA    PLAQUES   \VITII    PAINTINdS.* 

\VlTII  the  study  of  painted  vases  is  closely  connected 
that  of  tcrra-cotta  plaques  decorated  by  the  same 
process  that  was  used  in  ceramic  paintings.  This 
class  of  monuments  has  been  studied  but  a  -^liort 
time,  and  the  rarity  of  specimens  known  gives  it 
great  importance.  These  painted  plaques  are  ob- 
long in  shape,  and  are  covered  with  figured  subjects. 
The  same  order  in  styles  that  we  have  already  noted 
is  found  here  also — paintings  with  black  figures,  and 
with  red  figures. 

Black-figured  plaques  arc  the  most  numerous. 
We  mention  as  a  type  of  this  class  a  specimen 
from  the  Louvre,  representing  the  laying-out  of  and 
the  mourning  for  the  dead.f  Figures  of  persons 
in  the  archaic  style  are  designated  with  scrupulous 
care  by  accompanying  inscriptions.  At  the  head  of 
the  bed  arc  the  grandmother  (0e#e),  the  mother  (^.erep), 
and  a  sister  (aSeX</>e) ;  further  along  two  women  (dertf 
7rpo<>  7raTpo9,  "  maternal  aunt,"  and  reOis,  "  paternal 
aunt ")  make  gestures  expressive  of  sorrow,  while 

*  O.  Bennclorf,   Gricchischc  itnd  Sicili:chc  Vascnbildcr,  1869   1883  ; 
Dumont,  Pcinturcs  ccramiqncs,  p. 
t  Bcnndorf,  op.  c.,  plate  I. 


PAINTED   VASES. 


323 


the  father  and  the  brothers  standing  at  the  foot  of 
the  bed  abandon  themselves  to  lamentation.  Ex- 
clamations of  grief  arc  expressed  in  inscriptions 
written  on  the  field  (oifjioi,  "  alas  !  ").  The  same  sub- 
ject is  found  on  two  other  plaques  of  similar  style. 


FlG.    ll<)[>. — MINERS   AT   WORK. 

(Painted  Terra-cotta  Plaque.     Berlin  Museum.) 

Other  examples  present  mythological  scenes,  Heracles 
and  lolaus,  Athena  in  a  chariot,  etc.  Finally,  some 
painted  tablets,  lately  discovered  at  Corinth,*  repre- 
sent Poseidon,  and  scenes  taken  from  ordinary  life, 

*  O.   Rayet,    Gaz,    arch.,    1880.      The  Berlin    Museum  possesses 
numerous  specimens  of  these  votive  tablets.     [Cf.  Furtwiingler,  Catal., 
Nos.  347-955-] 
V  2 


J24  r.KEKK    ARCH.i:OI.O<;Y. 

such  as  pugilistic  contests,  potters  occupied  in  firing 
their  vases,  miners  \vith  pickaxes  working  at  the 
base  of  a  mountain. 

Among'  red-figured  plaques,  which  are  very  rare, 
we  would  make  especial  mention  of  fragments  that 
show  processions  of  the  gods,  Hermes,  Apollo  with 
a  lyre,  and  Athena  armed  with  a  spear. 

The  object  of  these  monuments  is  not  a  matter  of 
doubt.  The}-  arc  unquestionably  votive  offerings 
(ex  I'oto)  dedicated  cither  in  tombs  or  in  temples. 
Certain  vase-paintings  explain  their  use.  Thus  an 
amphora  in  Munich  exhibits  an  cphcbusor  a  victorious 
athlete,  holding  sprigs  of  myrtle  and  a  painted 
plaque  like  those  we  have  described,  representing  a 
runner.  The  young  victor  is  about  to  consecrate  in  a 
shrine  the  ex  voto  offering  that  indicates  his  triumph. 
A  still  more  decisive  witness  is  furnished  in  the  in- 
scriptions sometimes  to  be  read  on  these  monuments. 
Among  some  black-figured  plaques  found  near  Corinth 
several  bear  a  dedication  to  Poseidon.  Thus  one 
lately  acquired  by  the  Berlin  Museum,  signed  Timoni- 
das,  on  one  side  shows  Poseidon  near  the  potter's 
oven,  on  the  other  a  hunter  with  his  dog.  The 
plaque  is  inscribed  ['O  Belva]  ai'edexe  TOL  IIoT€i£avi 
"  [Such  an  one]  dedicated  me  to  Poseidon."  Some  of 
these  plaques  have  been  found  uninjured.  They  seem 
to  have  been  thrown  outside  of  the  temple  enclosure 
as  rubbish,  and  were  doubtless  removed  in  order  to 
make  place  for  more  important  votive  tablets. 


NUMISMATICS   AND    GLYPTICS. 


CHAPTER      I . 

NUMISMATICS. 

ECKHEL:  Dactrina  NummornmVeterum,  1792-1798. 

MIONNET  :  Medailles grecques  et  romaines,  1806-1838. 

BEULE :   Monnaies  d'A  thenes,  1858. 

FR.  LENORMANT  :  La  Monnaie  dans  I' Antiquity  1879  (unfinished). 

IMHOOF-BLUMER  :  Alonnaies  grecques,  1883. 

PERCY  GARDNER  :  Types  of  Greek  Coins,  1883. 

BARCLAY  V.     HEAD  :  A    Guide  to  the  Principal  Gold  and  Silver  Coins   of  the 

Ancients  from  B.C.  700 — A.D.  i.     Second  Ed.,  1881. 

BARCLAY  V.  HEAD  :    The  Chronological  Sequence  of  the  Coins  of  Bacotia,  1881. 
PERCY  GARDNER  :  Santos  and  Saurian  Coins,  1882. 

THE  history  of  ancient  money,  the  principles  that 
ruled  in  coinage,  and  the  study  of  types  figured  upon 
coins  and  of  accompanying  inscriptions,  constitute 
a  special  science — that  of  Numismatics.  We  cannot 
here  give  even  an  outline  of  it,  but  must  confine  our- 
selves to  indicating  the  relations  that  connect  the 
science  of  coins  with  the  archaeology  of  art.  This 
science  is  an  indispensable  aid  in  political  and  social 
history,  in  geography,  and  in  other  studies,  and  is 
equally  useful  in  the  history  of  art.  Since,  in  1842,* 
Raoul  Rochette  showed  the  advantage  that  might  be 

*  Mimoircs  dc  f  Academic  des  Inscript.  ct  Bdks-Lellres. 


326  CREEK    ARCII.T.OI.OGV. 

derived  from  a  knowledge  of  coins  in  the  restoration 
of  statues  described  by  ancient  writers,  or  in  the 
recognition  of  copies  in  the  marbles  of  our  museums, 
the  application  of  numismatics  has  come  into  very 
general  use.  Applied  either  to  statues  or  to  monu- 
ments of  architecture/*  this  method  has  been  most 
fruitful  in  results,  in  the  comparison  of  types  on  coins 
with  descriptions  of  ancient  authors  and  with  figured 
monuments. 

Considered  in  themselves,  coins  arc  of  profound 
interest  in  the  history  of  art.  They  form  a  chronolo- 
gical scries,  rich  and  varied,  in  which  may  be  followed 
with  great  accuracy  the  progress  and  decline  of  style. 
From  this  point  of  view,  coins  and  medals  may  be 
classified  according  to  great  periods,  corresponding  to 
the  principal  epochs  of  Greek  art.  It  will  be  useful 
to  indicate,  in  each  one  of  these  divisions,  the  most 
remarkable  types  of  coins  found  in  it. 

I. — The  most  ancient  Greek  silver  coins  seem  to 
date  from  the  eighth  Olympiad  (748  B.C.).  Phcidon, 
king  of  Argos,  is  credited  by  ancient  writers  with  the 
invention  of  coinage.  The  mints  of  that  time  struck 
off  pieces  of  irregular  shape,  having  the  appearance  ot 
small  ingots,  the  convex  surface  of  which  alone  bore 
an  emblem.  The  reverse  is  marked  by  a  square  and 
deep  indentation  (quadratum  incnsuiii],  caused  by  the 
square  head  that  served  to  hold  the  piece  when  receiv- 
ing the  impression. 

*  Cf.  Donaldson,  Architecture!  A~u»rismatica,  1859  ;  Lenormant, 
I.a  Numismatiqiie  ct  t 'Architecture  in  Kerne  gcner.  dc  I 'Architecture, 
1877. 


NUMISMATICS  AND  GLYPTICS. 


327 


FlG.   120. — SILVER    COIN    OF   ATHENS. 

(Most  ancient  style.) 


The  emblems  on  the  coins  are  somewhat  complex. 
At  /Egina,  a  tortoise  ;  at  Ephesus,  a  bee  ;  the  winged 
Pegasus  and  the  letter  koppa,  at  Corinth  ;  a  Gorgon's 
head   at  Athens  ;  a 
shield    on   Boeotian 
coins.    No  legend  is 
found  with  the  em- 
blem on  these  primi- 
tive coins. 

II. — Between  580 
B.C.  and  460  B.C.,  the 
progress  of  art  made 

itself  felt  in  the  coins  produced.  The  very  simple 
emblems  of  the  earlier  age  are  succeeded  by  heads 
of  divinities  or  of  mythological  persons,  while  the 
incuse  square  on  the  reverse  is  gradually  filled 
with  letters  and  with  designs.  Of  this  sort  are  the 
coins  of  ^Egina,  of  the  tran- 
sition style,  where  the  obverse 
has  the  tortoise  with  the  letters 
AI ;  on  the  reverse  is  the  in- 
cuse square  with  a  dolphin  and 
the  letters  IN :  Al[y\iv[arav]. 
The  same  progress  may  be 
followed  on  Attic  coins  ;  those 

of  Solon  and  of  Peisistratus  have  on  the  reverse 
the  incuse  square  crossed  by  diagonals,  and  on 
the  obverse  emblems  like  the  Gorgon's  head, 
part  of  a  horse,  a  wheel.  After  the  expulsion 
of  the  Peisistratidae,  the  head  of  Athena,  in  archaic 
style,  appears,  and  is  reproduced  for  a  long  time 


FIG.  121. 
BCEOTIAN  SILVER  COIN. 

(Most  ancient  style.) 


328 


('.REEK    ARCH.-KOLOGY. 


subsequently  :  this  type  is  treated  in  the  manner 
peculiar  to  archaic  art.  The  eye  is  drawn  as  if  in 
front,  and  the  vigorous  lines  of  the  profile  have  great 

sever  it}'.  Upon 
the  reverse  is 
the  owl,  the  seal 

of  the  state,  with 

'  i/ —         ,zS'-'s&y  u^h  \  u 
//         \  £<£?    U I  //      a      crescent,      a 

branch  of  olive, 
and  the  legend 

FlC.    122.  — ATHENIAN    'II.  i  KADK  AC11.M.  Ar)  Cj  '.      Avr)\l>ai- 

(Archaistic  style.)  ti)V~\. 

To  this  period 

belong  the  incuse  coins  of  Magna  Gnucia,  the  obverse 
of  which  bore  a  subject  in  relief  that  appeared  incuse 
on  the  reverse.  At  this  time  were  struck  coins  of 
Rhcgium  and  Messina,  with  mules  yoked  to  a  car, 
and  a  hare  for 
types  ;  those  of 
Gcla,  with  the 
river  god  having 
a  human  head, 
but  the  body 
of  a  bull  ;  also 
ancient  coins  of 


i  i 


123. — COIN    or    SYRACUSE. 

(Archaic  style.) 


Syracuse     bear- 
ing the  head  of 

Arcthusa  surrounded  by  dolphins,  and  on  the  reverse 
a  biga,  or  two-horse  chariot,  above  which  hovers  a 
figure  of  Victory. 

The  progress  is  clearly  marked  on  the  coins  of 


NUMISMATICS   AND   GLYPTICS.  329 

Thasos  :  the  earliest  exhibit  a  satyr  carrying  off  a 
nymph  ;  the  treatment  is  of  a  rude  style  that  recalls 
the  crudeness  of  the  conceptions  of  primitive  Greek 
art.  Upon  the  coins  of  the  following  age  the  scene  is 
rendered  with  much  more  refined  sentiment,  and  the 
short  thick  figures  give  place  to  more  elegant  and 
more  correct  designs.  The  beautiful  coins  of  Macedon 
and  of  Chalcidice  resemble  those  of  the  era  of  per- 
fection. As  we  advance  in  time  the  inscriptions  upon 
coins  become  explicit  and  definite.  The  earlier 
legends  confined  themselves  to  a  few  letters,  some- 
times to  only  one,  indicating  the  name  of  the  city 
(©A  for  Sa[(Ti(j0v],  coins  of  Thasos  ;  E<&  for  '-E</>[eo-(W]5 
of  Ephcsus  ;  A  for  ' 'Aljyyeivv],  of  Argos,  etc.).  Sub- 
sequently the  practice  prevailed  of  writing  in  full  all 
the  letters  of  the  name  of  the  town,  although  there 
are  some  exceptions  to  the  rule. 

III. — This  epoch,  comprising  the  time  between 
460  B.C.  and  336  B.C.,  shows  the  acme  of  the  art  of 
coinage.  During  the  former  half  of  this  period,  the 
style  of  coins,  though  very  pure,  retains  some  traces 
of  archaism.  As  already  remarked,  the  coins  of  Athens 
retained  until  the  best  period  the  ancient  type  of 
Athena.  The  coins  of  Sicyon  with  the  chimaera,  of 
Argos  with  the  wolf,  and  of  Agrigentum  with  two 
eagles  standing  upon  a  hare,  well  represent  the  first 
movement  in  the  period. 

At  the  end  of  the  fourth  century  B.C.  the  coins 
issued  by  Greek  cities  are  characterised  by  the  highest 
style  of  art.  Few  of  them  are  more  finished  than  the 
beautiful  coins  of  Pheneus  in  Arcadia,  with  the  head 


330 


GREEK    ARCH/EOLOGY. 


Fie..  124. — SII.VKR  COIN  or  THE 

ARCADIAN  CONl-'KDERACY. 


of  Dcmctcr  or  of  Core  on  the  obverse,  and  on  the  re- 
verse Hermes  currying  the  youthful  Areas.    The  coins 

of  Stymphalus,  with 
"?^\  the  head  of  the  Arca- 
dian Artemis,  and 
Heracles  contending 
with  the  Stymphalian 
birds,  arc  master- 
pieces. The  magnifi- 
cent development  of 
Peloponnesian  sculp- 
ture exercised  a  powerful  influence  upon  the  art  of 
coinage  in  Arcadia  at  the  time  when  the  Arcadian 
Confederacy  caused  the  coins  to  be  struck  that 
asserted  its  rule 
overOlympia.  This 
league  adopted  for 
symbols  the  head 
of  Olympian  Zeus, 
and  the  figure  of 
the  god  Pan,  seated 
upon  the  summit 
of  Mount  Lyconim, 
the  Arcadian  Olympus, 
("O\V/JL[TTO^])  indicates. 

In  Sicily  and  in  Magna  Grnjcia  coinage  attained 
a  degree  of  perfection  that  has  never  been  surpassed. 
Engravers  signed  their  coins  as  sculptors  their 
statues.* 

*  A  collection   of  the    signatures  of  engravers  of  coins  has  been 
made  l>y  Yon  Sal  let,  Die  Kunstlerinsehriften  auf  griechisehen  Mihizett, 


FlC.     125.--  SII.VKR    COIN     KROM 
METATONTUM. 


as     the     leend     OATM 


NUMISMATICS   AND   GLYPTICS. 


331 


To  this  period  belong  the  coins  of  Catana  and  01 
Sicilian  Naxos,  signed  Procles;  those  of  Metapontum, 
cut  by  Aristoxenus  ;  and  especially  the  admirable 
pentacontalitne  of  Syracuse,  signed  by  Cimon  and 
Euaenetus,  where  the  head  of  Arethusa  is  treated  with 
rare  nobility  of  feeling. 

Artistic  progress  is  apparent  not  only  in  the  great 
excellence  of  the  types  of  divinities,  that  often  repro- 


FlG.     126. — ATHENIAN    TETRADRACHM. 

(Later  style.) 

duce  the  works  of  great  masters,  such  as  the  Hera  of 
Polycleitus  and  the  Olympian  Zeus  of  Pheidias — the 
engravers  of  coins  and  medals  also  treat  with  rare 
genius,  in  the  limited  field  of  the  reverse,  genuine 
plastic  scenes.  Victories  won  at  the  Olympic  games, 
games  celebrated  in  honour  of  the  gods,  mythological 
legends  relating  to  a  city,  are  the  ordinary  subjects  of 
these  compositions.  Thus  the  reverse  of  Syracusan 

1871.  Few  signatures  are  found  outside  of  Sicily  and  Magna  Grcecia, 
and  in  these  countries  they  are  limited  to  a  short  period — from  490  B.C. 
to  350  B.C. 


332 


r,  R  K  K  K  ARCH.  i-:o  i  .00 v. 


coins  exhibits  a  four-horse  chariot,  driven  by  a 
charioteer  who  receives  a  crown  from  a  Victor}',  and 
in  the  field  are  the  weapons  given  as  pri/es  to  the 
victors.  On  the  coins  of  Selinus,  Apollo  and  Artemis 
advance,  Apollo  with  stretched  bow,  as  divinities  of 
the  plague  ;  on  the  reverse  the  river-god  Selinus 
(2EAINO2)  makes  offerings  to  Asclcpius  to  stay 
the  scourge.  Here  is  an  evident  allusion  to  an 


Fir..     127. — SILVER    COIN    OF    SYRACUSE. 


incident  in  the  history  of  the  city.  At  the  advice  of 
Empcdoclcs,  the  people  of  Selinus  changed  the  course 
of  the  rivers  Selinus  and  Hypsas  in  order  to  drain 
the  marshes  surrounding  the  city.* 

Another  characteristic  of  this  period  is  that 
engravers  represented  on  coins  the  head  in  front 
view  or  in  three-quarter  view,  executed  in  high 
relief,  f  About  the  eightieth  Olympiad  (460  1!.C.) 
Cimon  of  Cleona:  was  the  first  to  break  with  the 
timid  traditions  of  earlier  painters.  He  represented 

*  Diog.  Laert.  viii.  2.  u,  70. 

f  Cf.  De  \Vitte,  Medailles  if  Amp\ipclis,  in  Rcvne  mtmistnatiqiic, 
Vol.   IX.,   1864. 


NUMISMATICS   AND   GLYPTICS.  333 

heads  in  front  view — a  thing  that  Polygnotus  and 
Micon  had  not  dared  to  attempt.  The  engravers  of 
coins  applied  this  innovation  to  monetary  art  about 
the  time  of  Alexander,  tyrant  of  Pherae  (369  B.C.), 
who  caused  a  beautiful  tetradrachm  to  be  struck 
bearing  the  head  of  Artemis  in  front  view.  Many 
Greek  cities  followed  his  example.  The  head  in 
front  view  appears  on  the  coinage  of  Amphipolis, 


FlG.     128. — SILVER   COIN    OF   ANTIOCHUS    IV. 

Thebes,  Syracuse  and  Catana,  Metapontum,  Croton, 
Rhodes,  Clazomenae  in  Ionia,  and  of  other  cities. 
But  this  practice  lasted  only  a  short  time.  It  was 
seen  that  coins  in  high  relief  were  much  exposed  to 
wear,  and  soon  became  defaced.  A  return  was  made 
to  faces  in  profile  about  the  time  of  Alexander  the 
Great. 

IV. — In  the  epoch  of  the  Macedonian  dynasties 
the  art  of  coinage,  as  well  as  the  other  plastic  arts, 
entered  upon  a  decline.  The  coins  of  Alexander 
and  of  his  earlier  successors  are  still  very  beautiful. 
Those  that  were  struck  by  Philip  Arrhidseus,  by 


334  C.RKKK    AKCII.KOLOGY. 

Antigonus,  and  by  Lysimachus,  arc  worthy  of  the 
best  period  of  Greek  art.  In  Sicily  the  coins  of 
Agathoclcs,  of  Nicctas,  and  of  Pyrrhus,  also  test  if}'  to 
fine  and  pure  taste  preserved  by  tradition.  But  the 
dynasties  of  the  Seleucid.'e  and  of  the  Ptolcmys 
struck  coins  in  which  the  style  gradually  underwent  a 
change.  From  the  time  of  Alexander  the  custom 
became  established  of  representing  a  likeness  of  the 
Sovereign  upon  the  obverse,  while  on  the  reverse 
were  inscriptions  setting  forth  in  prolix  language  the 
titles  and  names  of  the  princes.  Thus  the  coinage  of 
Antiochus  IV.  is  inscribed  BASIAEflS  ANTIOXOT 
0EOT  EniQANOTZ.  Although  these  coins  are  of 
great  value  in  the  history  of  the  Greek  dynasties  and 
for  the  portraits  of  the  rulers,*  they  awaken  but  slight 
interest  in  connection  with  the  history  of  Greek  art. 
Decadence  in  taste  is  to  be  equally  observed  in  the 
coinage  of  the  cities  in  Greece  proper. 

*  Itnhoof-Blumer,    Fortr'dtkopfe    auf   antikcn   Miinzen   hcllenischcr 
und  hellenisitrter  V'Mer,  1885. 


335 


CHAPTER  II. 

GLYPTICS. 

KRAUSE  :  Pyrgoteles,  oiler  die  Steine  der  Alien,  1856. 

KING  :  Antique  Gems  ami  Rings,  1872. 

BILLING  :    The  Science  of  Gems,  Jewels,  etc.,  1867. 

WESTROIT  :  A  Manual  of  Precious  Stones  and  Antique  Gems,  1873. 

THE  study  of  Glyptics,  or  of  engraved  precious 
stones,  is  naturally  connected  with  that  of  coins  :  its 
aim  is  the  interpretation  of  small  subjects  which 
often  have  their  analogues  on  coins.  At  the  same 
time  difficulties  arc  here  encountered.  The  absence 
of  legends  or  inscriptions  makes  a  chronological 
classification  less  certain.  We  are  often  reduced  to 
considering  simply  the  style  of  the  engraved  stone, 
except  when  the  subject  is  of  an  historical  character, 
and  thus  indicates  a  definite  epoch.  The  signatures 
of  engravers,  when  they  can  be  regarded  as  authentic, 
likewise  furnish  useful  indications. 

Glyptics  is  one  of  the  branches  of  ancient  art  that 
most  keenly  aroused  interest  at  the  outset  of  archaeo- 
logical studies  ;  collectors  have  for  a  long  time  eagerly 
sought  for  carved  stones,  and  since  the  work  of  /Eneas 
Vicus  of  Parma,  engraver  to  Alphonso  II.,  Duke  of 
Ferrara,  treatises  on  ancient  glyptics  have  frequently 
been  published.*  This  interest  gave  rise  to  the 

*  See  Mariette,    Traite  des  Pierres  gravees,  1750;  and  De  Murr, 
Bibliothcque  dactyliographique,  1804. 


33^  r.RKKK    AK(  H.KOI.OC.V. 

industry  of  counterfeiting,  and  the  number  of  spurious 
gems  is  considerable.  Accuracy  in  vision,  and  skill 
in  criticism,  arc  required  to  distinguish  these  imitations 
from  authentic  works.  The  European  museums 
possess  rich  collections  of  engraved  stones  ;  those  of 
Paris,  Florence,  Vienna,  Naples,  and  Berlin  occupy 
the  first  rank. 

I. — From  the  point  of  view  of  technique,  en- 
graved stones  are  divided  into  two  grand  classes, 
intaglios  and  cameos.  The  former  class  includes 
stones  in  which  the  engraved  subject  is  sunk  beneath 
the  surface  ;  from  them  is  obtained  in  soft  wax  an 
impression  in  relief.  For  this  class,  stones  of  a  single 
colour  arc  chosen,  such  as  the  amethyst,  hyacinth, 
agate,  cornelian,  chalcedony.  The  polisher  gives  the 
stone  an  oval  and  convex  form,  and  the  engraver 
works  at  it  with  the  chasing-punch,  taking  the  greatest 
pains  to  polish  all  the  cavities  of  the  figure  he  traces. 
This  finish  in  work  is  regarded  as  a  sign  of  authen- 
ticity.* Imitations  of  intaglios  were  not  rare,  even 
in  antiquity.  False  gems  were  made  by  taking  im- 
pressions in  pastes  of  coloured  glass  ;  these  were  then 
set  in  rings,  necklaces,  and  other  jewels,  and  were 
the  luxury  of  the  poorer  classes.  Most  commonly 
intaglios  served  as  seals  or  signets  (crfaaryk),  and 
were  worn  in  finger-rings. 

Cameos  arc  distinguished  from  intaglios  by  being 
engraved  in  relief;  they  are  often  of  very  large 
size.  Engravers  frequently  cut  them  in  stones  where 

*  Sec  the  technical  details  given  by  Pliny,  N.H.  xxxvii. 


NUMISMATICS   AND   GLYPTICS. 


337 


many  colours  are  found  in  several  layers,  and  thus 
obtained  a  different  coloration  for  the  relief  and  for 
the  ground. 

II.— Ancient  Greek  intaglios  seem  to  have  been 
engraved  in  imitation 
of  Egyptian  scarabs, 
and  of  Babylonian  cy- 
linders. They  have  been 
found  in  the  tombs  at 
Mycenae,  where  they 
cannot  be  regarded  with 
certainty  as  Hellenic 
in  origin  ;  relations  with 
the  East  must  very 
early  have  furnished 
models  to  Greek  en- 
gravers.* It  would  be 
superfluous  to  return 
to  the  question  as  to 
Oriental  sources,  and  to 
indicate  at  length  the 
Graeco-Oriental  charac- 
teristicsofmanyancient  FIG.  129.— APOLLO  WITH  THE  DOE. 
intaglios.  These  charac- 
teristics distinctly  appear  on  stones  found  at  Cyprus, 
in  the  "  Curium  Treasure."  f  The  style  of  engraved 


*  On  the  archaic  intaglios   found  on    the  islands   of  the 
Archipelago  ("island  gems"),  see  especially  MilchhSfer,  Anfdnge  der 
Kwist  in  Gri'chcnland,  1883. 

t  Engraved    stone   representing    Nemesis  :    Gazette  archtologique, 
1878  ;  Myrtilus  and  the  horses  of  CEnomaus,  ibid. 
W 


GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY. 


stones  passes  through  the  same  phases  as  that  of  sculp- 
ture. Gem-cutting,  represented  in  the  primitive  period 
by  the  Samian  Thcodorus,  who  made  the  famous  ring 
of  Polycrates,  was  developed  as  a  branch  of  sculpture  ; 
it  attained  perfection  in  Pyrgotcles,  who  engraved  the 
seal  of  Alexander,  and  did  not  cease,  even  in  the 
Roman  Empire,  to  produce  the  delicate  pieces  of 

work  that  adorn 
our  museums.  The 
artists  whose  signa- 
tures are  found  on 
the  best  known 
gems  belong  en- 
tirely to  the  Mace- 
donian period  and 
to  the  Roman 
epoch,  if  we  arc  to 
judge  by  the  shapes 
of  the  letters  and 

by  the  formula?  used :  Satyreius  flourished  under 
Ptolemy  II.;  Tryphon  under  King  Polcmon,  the 
broti'gc  of  Mark  Antony  ;  Dioscuridcs  under  Augustus. 
The  names  arc  known  of  a  large  number  of  engravers 
belonging  to  this  period,  but  we  cannot  admit 
with  certainty  all  the  names  that  arc  to  be 
read  on  gems.  Counterfeiters  have  often  placed  upon 
antique  stones  fictitious  names  to  give  them  greater 
value,*  or  have  actually  inscribed  names  that  they 

"  See  Letronne,  Bull,  de  Corr  a/r/i.,  1851.  On  one  gem  is  to 
be  read  the  name  ITwTj/ioi/,  which  is  not  Greek.  In  another  place  the 
counterfeiter  has  incorrectly  written  a  name  :  AA.AJOV  for  AaAiajK. 


FlG.    130. — GEM    OF    APOLLOXIDES. 


NUMISMATICS  AND   GLYPTICS. 


339 


have  misunderstood.     Accordingly  the  signatures  01 

engravers  must  be  accepted  with  great  reserve  ;  those 

that  are  the  least  doubtful  are 

the      following  :  —  Agathapus, 

Apollonides,     Aspasius,   Athc- 

nion,  Boethus,  Dioscuridcs,  Epi- 

tynchanus,    Euodus,    Eutyches, 

Phelix,      Heracleidas,      Hero- 

philus,  Hyllus,  Ccenus,  Mycon, 

Neisus,      Nicandrus,      Onesus, 

Pamphilus,    Protarchus,   Solon, 

and  Teucrus. 

Great  variety  as  to  subjects 
treated  prevails  among  the  en- 
gravers of  precious  stones.     We  can  easily  convince 
ourselves   of    this    by   running    over    the    catalogue 


FIG.  131. 

BETROTHAL  SCENE. 
(Engraved  Gem.) 


FlG.    132. — PELOI'S  WATERING   HIS   HORSES. 
(Cameo. ) 

prepared    by   Chabouillet     of    the   engraved    stones 
in  the  French  Cabinet  des  Medailles.      Mythological 
W  2 


340  GREEK   ARCHEOLOGY. 

subjects  arc  very  common.  Often  artists  reproduce 
the  classic  types  of  Greek  divinities.  Such  are  the 
beautiful  intaglios  of  Kutychcs  and  of  Aspasius,  re- 
presenting the  head  of  Athena.  The  gem  of 
Aspasius  is  of  so  pure  a  style  that  man}-  scholars, 
with  Eckhel,  have  regarded  it  as  a  copy  of  the  chrys- 
elephantine Athena  of  Pheitlias.  On  the  cameo  of 
Zeus  ^Egiochus,  found  in  Kphcsus,  the  god  has  a 
calm  expression  of  power  that  recalls  the  best  tra- 
ditions of  art.  It  would  be  easy  to  multiply  ex- 
amples, and  to  show  that  engraved  gems  are  a  very 
rich  source  of  knowledge  in  the  study  of  mythology 
as  illustrated  in  art. 

Engravers  did  not  confine  themselves  to  the  re- 
presentation of  heads  ;  in  the  limited  field  of  the  gems 
they  attempted  complicated  scenes,  and  drew  inspira- 
tion from  the  most  attractive  subjects  in  mythology. 
The  cyclus  of  Eros,  and  that  of  Aphrodite  in 
particular,  set  in  play  the  artists'  imagination,  and 
furnished  them  with  charming  compositions,  where 
a  felicitous  conception  is  allied  with  most  delicate 
execution.  Into  plastic  forms  of  the  most  exquisite 
beauty,  engravers  often  translated  the  epigrams  of 
the  poets  of  the  Anthology.  There  seems  to  be  a 
natural  bond  connecting  these  lighter  products  of  art 
and  poetry.  In  an  epigram,  the  poet  Crinagoras 
addresses  Eros  in  chains  as  one  punished  for  his 
misdeeds  : — "  Yes,  cry  and  sob,  thou  traitor,  now  that 
thy  hands  are  tied  ;  it  becomes  thec  to  weep.  No 
one  shall  release  thcc.  Do  not  look  to  one  side. 
Thou  hast  made  many  eyes  glisten  with  tears, 


NUMISMATICS   AND   GLYPTICS.  341 

shooting  thy  arrows  into  hearts,  while  thou  distillest 
the  poison  of  desires  from  which  one  cannot  escape, 
O  Eros !  The  sorrows  of  mortals  seem  to  thee 
matters  for  laughter.  Very  well,  now  thou  sufferest 
as  thou  hast  made  others  suffer.  There  is  good  in 
justice."*  May  we  not  believe  that  in  writing  these 
verses  the  author  had  before  his  eyes  a  beautiful  in- 
taglio, that  represented  Eros  disarmed,  his  hands  tied 
behind  his  back,  and  in  confusion  because  of  his  mis- 
hap? On  another  gem  Eros  is  torturing  Psyche,  the 
image  of  the  soul,  by  burning  it  with  his  torch.  This 
motive  is  found  in  an  epigram  of  Meleager  : — "  If  thou 
persist  in  burning  the  unhappy  Psyche,  she  will  flee,  O 
Eros,  for  she  too,  thou  wretch,  has  wings."  f  Engraved 
stones  make  known  to  us  a  whole  phase  of  Greek 
thought  that  was  developed  principally  in  the  Mace- 
donian epoch,  where  are  observed  refinement  in  taste 
pushed  to  playful  affectation,  extreme  subtlety,  and 
rare  facility  in  putting  into  ingenious  forms  the  fine 
analysis  of  sentiments,  by  which  at  that  time  art  and 
literature  alike  were  largely  nourished. 

An  important  class  is  that  of  gems  adorned  with 
portraits  ;  masterpieces  of  Greek  glyptics  are  found 
among  these  portrait  gems.  It  is  sufficient  to  mention 
the  magnificent  Gonzaga  cameo  (now  in  Russia),  re- 
presenting the  heads  of  Ptolemy  II.  and  Arsinoe  ;  that 
of  Vienna,  also  with  the  heads  of  a  Ptolemy  and  of 
an  Arsinoe,  hardly  falls  behind  the  Russian  cameo  in 
beauty.  These  gems  belong  to  the  period  when 

*  Anthol.  Plan,  iv.  199.  |  Anthol.  Pal.  v.  57. 


342  C.REKK    ARCH/KOLOGY. 

engraved  stones  were  of  considerable  si/e  ;  the}'  were 
no  longer  simple  seals,  and  were  used  in  the  decora- 
tion of  costly  vases  and  cups.  The  ornamentation 
of  gems  became  more  and  more  elaborate.  At  the 
Roman  epoch  the  gems  were  covered  with  actual  his- 
torical scenes,  conceived  as  pictures  ;  such  is  the  cele- 
brated cameo  of  Saintc-Chapellc,  in  the  Bibliothequc 
Nationalc  in  Paris,  representing  the  apotheosis  of 
Augustus.  But  these  complicated  compositions, 
though  the  work  of  Greek  artists,  belong  by  the 
spirit  that  inspired  them  to  the  history  of  Roman  art. 


BRONZES    AND    JEWELS. 


CHAPTER    I. 

BRONZES. 

FRIEDERICHS  :  Kleinere  Kuiist  und  Industrie  in  Alterthum.    Die  Bronzcn,  1871. 

FURTWANGLER  :  BroHzefunde  aus  Olympia,  1879. 

Compare  an  interesting  study  by  GUILLACMB,  La  Sculpture  en  Bronze,  1868  ;  also 
Daremberg  and  Saglio's  Dictionnaire  des  Antiquites  grccqucs  et  roinaines, 
1873^1  fin  process  of  publication),  s.v.  Ccelatura.  (by  SAGLIO). 

WE  have  already  spoken  of  the  place  of  bronze  in 
Greek  plastic  art.  Bronze  was  always  in  favour 
among  the  Greeks  ;  we  meet  with  it  in  early  times 
in  the  schools  of  Oriental  Greece,  especially  at  Samos, 
as  well  as  elsewhere  throughout  the  most  flourishing 
periods  of  art.  The  great  masters  in  Greek  art  ex- 
celled in  the  art  of  using  bronze  ;  Pheidias,  Polycleitus, 
and  Lysippus  were  toreuticians  as  well  as  Calamis, 
Ageladas  and  Canachus,  and  wrought  as  skilfully  with 
metal  as  in  marble.  It  even  seems  that  certain 
schools,  like  those  of  Argos  and  of  Sicyon,  were 
traditionally  devoted  to  the  art  of  working  in  bronze. 
In  the  latter  years  of  Hellenism,  under  the  succes- 
sors of  Alexander,  this  art  was  exercised  by  artists 
with  great  skill,  and  the  bronzes  of  Pompeii  and  of 
Herculaneum,  in  which  one  recognises  the  hand  of 


344  r.KKEK    ARCH.KOI.OGV. 

Greek  workmen,  prove  that  the  traditions  of  the 
schools  were  preserved  unimpaired. 

This  predilection  of  the  Greeks  for  the  art  of 
working  in  bronze  is  explained  by  the  qualities  de- 
manded by  metal  working,  which  in  every  point 
coincide  with  the  peculiar  aptitude  of  Greek  genius. 
Bronze  requires  dcfinitcncss  of  outline  and  perfect  ele- 
gance in  silhouette  effect,  while  at  the  same  time  it 
allows  figures  more  independence  and  variety  ;  acces- 
sory parts,  such  as  supports,  are  not  needed,  and  by 
means  of  this  omission  contours  have  all  their  value. 

We  shall  not  here  return  to  a  study  of  the  schools 
of  bronze-founders,  nor  to  a  consideration  of  the 
primitive  processes  employed,  at  the  beginnings  of 
Greek  art,  in  the  Oriental  schools.  Nor  shall  we 
attempt  to  give  a  review  of  the  knowledge  to  be 
obtained  from  a  study  of  the  great  bronzes,  master- 
pieces of  the  toreutic  art,  which  have  their  definite 
place  in  the  history  of  sculpture.  \Yc  shall  only 
consider  bronzes  of  small  dimensions,  statuettes, 
plaques  in  repousse,  furniture,  weapons,  etc. — every- 
thing, in  short,  that  can  be  placed  under  the  head  of 
"minor  art  and  industry."  At  the  same  time,  however 
humble  might  have  been  the  purpose  of  these  objects, 
they  not  only  arc  important  as  valuable  materials  for 
the  history  of  ancient  life,  but  arc  also  often  of  great 
interest  in  the  history  of  art.  Nowhere  has  the  alliance 
between  art  and  industry  been  closer  than  among  the 
Greeks  ;  this  people  could  not  conceive  of  them  as  two 
distinct  things. 

Articles  in  bronze  are  of  infinite  variety,  both  in 


BRONZES   AND   JEWELS.  345 

form  and  in  use.  We  shall  Jimit  ourselves  to 
noticing  three  important  groups,  viz.,  statuettes,  objects 
for  ornament,  and  articles  for  the  toilette,  among 
which  mirrors  occupy  an  important  place. 

§     I.    BRONZE    STATUETTES. 

Greek  bronze  figurines  of  small  dimensions  seem 
to  have  had  various  uses,  indicated  partly  by  the 
nature  of  the  subject,  partly  by  their  technique  ;  they 
served  as  images  for  worship,  as  votive  offerings,  as 
amulets,  or  were  designed  simply  for  the  ornamenta- 
tion of  dwellings. 

The  votive  character  of  a  large  number  of  small 
bronzes  is  not  doubtful,  and  is  attested  as  much  by 
inscriptions  accompanying  these  articles  as  by  the 
circumstances  in  which  they  were  found.  An  archaic 
statuette  of  Apollo,  discovered  at  Naxos,  has  a  dedi- 
cation to  the  god  himself:  "  Deinagores  has  conse- 
crated me  to  Apollo,  the  Far-darter"  (Aeiva^op^ 
fiaveBtjicev  e^/SoXco  'AjroXXwvi).  Certain  inscriptions 
prove  that  at  times  the  statue  of  one  god  would  be 
dedicated  to  another  god  ;  we  read  an  inscription  to 
this  effect  upon  the  bronze  Apollo  Piombino  in  the 
Louvre,  which  was  consecrated  to  Athena.*  One  of 
the  richest  collections  of  Greek  bronzes,  that  of 
Carapanos,  is  formed  of  objects  excavated  at  Dodona, 
on  the  site  of  the  temple  of  Dodonaean  Zeus ;  it 

*  "  Charidemus  [has  consecrated]  to  Athena  [this  statue],  the  pro- 
duct of  a  tithe."  See  De  Longperier,  Notice  Jus  Bronzes  du  Louvre, 
1868,  No.  96. 


346  GREEK    ARCHEOLOGY. 

makes  us  clearly  understand  the  use  of  these  small 
figurines,  which  include  an  infinite  variety  of  subjects, 
and  can  have  had  but  one  meaning,  that  of  offerings 
consecrated  to  the  god  by  devotees  who  had  visited 
his  sanctuary,  or  had  consulted  his  oracle.* 

Certain  small  bronzes,  found  in  tombs,  seem  to 
have  been  worn  as  amulets ;  this  is  shown  by  the 
ring  that  accompanies  them,  by  which  they  were 
hung  round  the  neck. 

The  decorative  intent  of  bronze  statuettes  is 
attested  by  discoveries  in  Pompeii.  In  the  villa  of 
Hcrculancum  one  of  the  rooms  was  adorned  with 
busts  of  celebrated  philosophers,  as  Zcno,  Epicurus,  etc. 

We  group  these  figurines  according  to  the  subjects 
they  represent,  and  follow  a  chronological  order  in 
each  group ;  this  is  the  method  followed  by  De 
Longperier  in  his  learned  Notice  des  Bronzes  du  Louvre^ 
1 368.  We  shall  limit  ourselves  to  considering  them 
from  the  point  of  view  of  those  differences  in  style 
which  coincide  with  the  progress  of  art.  Avoiding 
a  complicated  classification,  we  may  divide  small 
bronzes  into  two  groups: — (i)  bronzes  of  the  ancient 
or  antique  Greek  style  ;  (2)  bronzes  of  the  period  of 
fullest  artistic  development. 

I. — Bronzes  of  tJic  ancient  stylc.-\ — Among  the 
archaic  monuments  in  bronze  of  the  sixth  century 

*  Several  years  ago  there  were  discovered  at  Cape  Ta;narum  a 
number  of  bronze  horses  and  other  animals,  dedicated  to  Poseidon. 

f  Greek  bronzes  of  the  ancient  style  are  often  confounded  with 
Etruscan  bronzes ;  the  latter  have,  however,  very  marked  features, 
which  enable  us  to  recognise  them  in  spite  of  the  resemblance  between 
the  two  classes. 


BRONZES  AND  JEWELS. 


347 


B.C.,  the  most  remarkable  are  those  that  were  found 
at  Dodona. *  The  first  is  a  satyr  with  the  feet  of 
a  horse,  modelled  in  vigorous  style ;  he  is  dancing, 


FlG.  133. — PERSON  IN  ROYAL  ATTIRE. 

(Bronze  from  Dodona.)  , 

and  his  right  hand  rests  upon  his  hip.  In  the  ex- 
pression of  merry  sensuality  in  his  face,  in  the  care- 
fully finished  execution  of  his  beard  and  hair,  we  re- 
cognise the  naive  conscientiousness  of  Greek  art  at  its 
beginning.  De  Witte  does  not  hesitate  to  date  this 


Carapanos,  Dodona  et  scs  Ruines,  Paris,  1878. 


34$  C.RKKK    ARCH.KOLOr.Y. 

bronze  from  the  sixth  century  15. c,  or  even  from  the 
seventh  century  B.C.  To  the  same  cpocli  belongs  the 
"Flute-player"  (aulctria\  likewise  found  at  Dodona, 
closely  wrapped  in  a  tunic  of  very  fine  material  which 
reaches  to  her  heels  ;  her  mouth  is  covered  with  the 
leather  that  kept  the  double-flute  in  place  ;  she  plays 
upon  her  instrument  in  a  very  realistic  attitude. 
The  art  of  the  sixth  century  li.C.  also  produced  the 
interesting  statue  of  a  seated  man,  doubtless  a  royal 
personage  :  his  hair  is  braided,  and  his  head  covered 
by  the  conical  cap  worn  by  Thracians  ;  he  is  entirely 
covered  by  a  full  mantle,  under  which  one  of  his 
hands  appears  raised  as  high  as  his  breast.  (Fig.  133.) 

Although  the  bronzes  of  Dodona  have  greatly  en- 
riched the  list  of  archaic  statuettes,  this  list  comprised, 
even  before  these  discoveries,  many  interesting  ex- 
amples. The  Apollo  dedicated  by  Polycratcs,"*  of  the 
old  Pourtales  collection,  often  reproduced  by  the 
engraver,  shows  much  of  the  stiffness  of  the  ancient 
style. 

Bronzes  found  in  the  substructures  of  the  earlier 
Parthenon,  which  was  burned  by  the  Persians,  arc  of 
equally  authentic  character,  and  are  thus  of  infinite 
value.  Such  is  the  statuette  of  Athena  of  the  old 
Oppcrmann  collection,  which  shows  the  goddess  ready 
for  combat,  and  of  which  the  hieratic  attitude  and 
awkward  movement  remind  us  of  ancient  palladia. 

The  transition  from  primitive  art  to  the  freer  style 
of  the  fifth  century  li.C.  is  as  clear  in  the  minor 

*  Inscription  on  the  base,  in  archaic  letters  :  Uo\vKpa.Trjs  avtOrjicf. 


BRONZES   AND   JEWELS.  349 

bronzes  as  in  sculpture  on  a  larger  scale.  A  small 
bronze  Apollo,  found  at  Athens,*  appears  to  show  all 
the  characteristics  of  Attic  style  about  the  time  of  the 
Persian  wars.  But  the  most  remarkable  specimen  of 
the  art  of  bronze  in  the  earlier  half  of  the  fifth  century 
B.C.  is  without  doubt  the  beautiful  statuette  of  Heracles 
which  once  belonged  to  the  Oppcrmann  collection, 
but  now  enriches  the  French  Cabinet  des  Medailles. 
"  The  god  walks  with  a  rapid  movement,  his  left  leg 
forward  and  the  right  in  the  rear,  his  calves  tense  and 
his  knees  stiffened  ;  with  his  right  arm  he  raises  his 
club,  and  is  about  to  smite  the  enemy  before  him  ; 
with  his  extended  left  hand  he  holds  his  bow,  and 
seems  to  be  parrying  with  it."f  This  beautiful  figurine, 
in  which  we  are  tempted  to  recognise  a  copy  of  the 
Heracles  made  for  the  Thasians  by  Onatas  the 
yEginetan,  has  a  striking  resemblance  in  style  to  the 
statues  of  the  pediments  of  the  temple  in  yEgina.  It 
is  certain  that  it  came  from  the  same  school,  and  it 
shows  how  the  art  of  working  in  bronze  kept  pace  in 
the  fifth  century  B.C.  with  the  art  of  sculpture. 

II. — Statuettes  of  later  style. — We  shall  not  under- 
take to  enumerate  the  most  remarkable  of  the  small 
bronzes  of  the  finished  style,  owned  by  our  museums 
and  by  private  collectors.  The  bronzes  from  Pompeii 
and  Herculaneum  gathered  in  the  Museo  Xazionale 
of  Naples,  form  in  themselves  a  rich  museum  for 
study,  and  reveal  to  what  perfection  the  Greeks  had 
learned  to  carry  the  art  of  working  in  bronze.  Italo- 

*  De  Witte,  Rev.  arch.  1873,  plate  vi. 

t  O.  Rayet,  Monuments  de  r Art  antique  ;   ire  livraison. 


350 


GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY. 


Greek  bronze  statues,  however,  of  an  earlier  time, 
from  villages  in  the  Campagna, 
arc  still  quite  rare.  Under  this 
head  \vc  would  specify  a  work 
of  singular  perfection,  which 
sums  up  in  itself  all  the  charac- 
teristics of  contemporary  Greek 
style  in  the  great  schools.  This 
is  a  statuette  representing 
Aphrodite  dressed  in  Dorian 
costume,  with  simple  straight 
folds,  wearing  a  crown  de- 
corated with  jewels  ;  the  head 
is  charming  in  its  purity, 
while  its  exquisitely  elegant 
outlines  at  once  suggest  the 
most  finished  works  of  the 
close  of  the  fifth  century  15. C. 
The  still  hieratic  attitude,  the 
majestic  fall  of  the  folds  of  the 
costume  seem  to  be  a  sort  of 
concession  made  to  the  severe 
traditions  of  the  fifth  century 
B.C.,  while  the  face  has  all  the 
grace  of  the  succeeding  age. 

We  may  ascribe  to  the  art 
of  the  fourth  century  B.C.  the 
T-  beautiful  bronze   from    Taren- 

r  IG.    134- 

BRONZE  FROM  TARENTUM.     turn,  reproduced    in    Fig.    134, 

which    seems    to   represent    a 

military  commander  addressing  his  troops.    There  are 


BRONZES  AND  JEWELS.  351 

few  antique  bronzes  superior  to  this  statuette  in  the 
finish  of  their  modelling  and  in  the  successful  attempt 
to  present  individual  types. 

The  art  of  bronze-working  soon  followed  sculpture 
in  the  way  opened  up  by  the  masters  of  the  new 
Attic  school.  The  fancy  of  toreuticians  is  apparent 
in  charming  works  of  exquisite  taste,  controlled  by 
the  desire  for  grace  and  for  thoughtful  fantasies: 
drunken  Fauns,  drinking  Heracles,  big-bellied  Sileni 
stumbling  along  under  the  spell  of  intoxication, 
winged  Victories ;  these  are  favourite  subjects  with 
artists  working  in  metal.*  This  new  taste  appeared 
in  Graeco-Syrian  statuettes  from  Tortosa,  dating 
from  the  time  of  the  Seleucidse,  among  which  repre- 
sentations of  Aphrodite  are  very  numerous.  Graeco- 
Syrian  bronzes  form  the  transition  from  the  Hellenic 
art  of  the  period  of  independence  to  the  Italo-Greek 
bronzes,  with  which  the  people  of  Pompeii  adorned 
their  dwellings.f 

§    2.    OBJECTS    FOR   ORNAMENT.       PLAQUES    IN    BRONZE 
REPOUSSE. 

It  is  often  difficult  to  determine  with  precision 
the  use  of  reliefs  in  bronze  repousse  which  form 
an  interesting  class  among  articles  in  metal.  Were 
they  used  to  decorate  furniture  ?  did  they  belong  to 

*  The  Antiquarium  of  Berlin  possesses  a  charming  figurine  of  a 
Satyr  found  at  Pergamum,  contemporary  in  style  with  marbles  of  the 
Great  Altar  :  Furtwangler,  Satyr  aus  Pergamon,  1880. 

t  The  Berlin  Museum  possesses  a  very  beautiful  specimen  of  the 
bronzes  of  the  Hellenistic  epoch  ;  it  is  a  group,  found  at  Aphrodisias  in 
the  valley  of  the  Mseander,  representing  Theseus  and  the  Minotaur  : 
A.  Conze,  Theseus  und  Minotaitros,  1878. 


352  GREEK   ARCHEOLOGY. 

pieces  of  armour?  or  were  these  metallic  plaques, 
often  very  thin,  designed  to  be  sc\vn  upon  stuffs  or 
upon  strips  of  leather  ?  All  these  hypotheses  are 
probable,  and  are  justified  by  the  workmanship  of 
the  plaques  themselves,  which  are  often  perforated 
with  holes,  for  the  purpose  of  affixing  them  to  some 
other  material.* 

The  Carapanos  collection  has  contributed  the 
greatest  number  of  specimens  of  this  kind  of  work. 
Amongst  them  we  will  mention  only  a  plaque  in 
repousse,  which  doubtless  was  part  of  a  breast- 
plate. The  subject  treated  is  one  often  represented 
on  painted  vases  and  on  marble  votive  slabs,  viz.,  the 
dispute  between  Apollo  and  Heracles  for  the  posses- 
sion of  the  Delphic  tripod.  The  two  divinities  arc 
treated  in  the  hieratic  style  preserved  by  tradition, 
but  the  purity  of  the  lines  of  the  profile  and  the  quiet 
grace  of  the  contours  show  that  the  archaism  is 
affected  :  the  work  is  carefully  wrought,  and  exhibits 
the  style  of  the  fourth  century  r,.C.  If  it  were  neces- 
sary to  prove  what  grace  and  beauty  were  given  by 
the  Greeks  even  to  industrial  articles,  no  argument 
could  be  more  decisive  than  the  citation  of  another 
plaque  from  Dodona,  representing  the  combat  be- 
tween Pollux  and  Lynceus.  (Fig.  135.)  This  bas- 
relief  decorated  merely  the  cheek-guard  of  a  helmet; 
and  yet  the  modelling  of  the  flesh  parts  and 
the  treatment  of  the  drapery  are  managed  with 

*  [The  Siris  Bronzes  in  the  British  Museum,  which  were  shoulder- 
straps  of  a  Greek  cuirass,  'are  among  the  finest  specimens  known  of 
toreutic  art.] 


BRONZES   AND  JEWELS.  353 

the  care    found   in  works   of  larger  size.     Here  can 


FlG.   135.— COMBAT   BETWEEN    POLLUX   AM)   LYNCEUS. 
(Bronze  Relief  from  Dodona. ) 

easily    be    recognised    the    style    cf    the    epoch    of 

X 


354  GREEK    ARCII/EOLOGY. 

Lysippus,  and  this  object  takes  rank  among  the  most 
beautiful  works  of  art  known  to  us  of  the  fourth 
century  B.C. 

Certain  pieces  in  the  Doclona  collection,  which  are 
very  strange  in  appearance,  testify  to  the  taste  that 
originally  ruled  in  the  ornamentation  of  Greek  armour. 
Among  the  helmet  cheek-guards  found  by  Carapanos, 
there  arc  some  that  imitate  the  human  face  ;  these  are 
real  masks,  and  reproduce  the  features  of  the  warrior's 
face,  the  detail  of  his  beard  either  carefully  curled  or 
heavily  massed,  and  the  curves  of  his  moustache. 
The  soldier  wearing  this  helmet,  and  in  full  panoply, 
resembled  an  actual  bron/.e  stature.  Nothing  can 
better  explain  the  legend  reported  by  Herodotus,  that 
the  first  Greek  hoplites  who  entered  Egypt  seemed 
to  the  natives  actual  men  of  bronxe  - 


3.    ARTICLES    OF    THK    TOILET.  —  MIRRORS. 

DE  WITTK  :  Les  Miroirs  chez  les  Ancient,  18727?. 
MYLONAS  :  'EAAqi-txd  Ka'rcjrTpa,  Athens,  1876. 

UI'.MONT:    Miroirs  grecs    orncs  dc  figures    an  trait   (in   Memtitients    frees    <fe 
I'  Association  ties  cttii/fs  greryttcs),  1873. 

It  is  to  the  Greek  custom  of  burying  with  the 
dead  all  that  was  clear  to  them  when  alive  that  is  due 
the  fact  that  discoveries  of  tombs,  made  accidentally 
or  in  regular  course  of  excavation,  have  brought  to 
light  a  great  number  of  toilette  articles  :  brooches, 
colour-boxes,  mirrors,  etc.  Among  these  articles, 
Greek  mirrors  form  an  important  class,  which  has 

*  Herodotus,  ii.  152. 


BRONZES   AND   JEWELS.  355 

only  recently  attracted  the  attention  of  archaeo- 
logists. Etruscan  and  Roman  mirrors  have  long 
been  known  in  great  numbers.  Greek  mirrors  arc 
infinitely  superior  in  beauty  to  Etruscan  mirrors, 
and  prove  that  Hellenic  art  did  not  disdain  to  orna- 
ment these  accessories  in  the  toilette  of  women  with 
most  exquisite  care. 

Greek  as  well  as  Etruscan  mirrors  are  generally 
rounded  in  form.  According  to  their  technique,  they 
are  divided  into  two  classes  : — I.  Simple  mirrors  in  the 
form  of  discs,  with  a  carefully  polished  convex  front 
surface  that  reflected  the  image,  and  a  concave  back 
ornamented  with  figures  traced  with  the  engraver's 
burin.  These  discs  were  provided  with  a  handle,  in 
the  form  of  a  statuette  with  pedestal,  which  allowed 
them  either  to  be  held  in  the  hand  or  to  stand  up- 
right upon  a  table.  Painted  vases  with  toilette  scenes 
often  represent  women  holding  their  mirrors.  On  a 
vase  in  the  British  Museum  a  woman  looks  at  herself  in 
the  mirror,  and  on  another  is  the  inscription  :  avro^ria 
("view  of  herself").  2.  Another  form,  especially 
common  in  Greece,  is  that  of  two  mirrors  combined 
into  a  sort  of  case.  These  mirrors  are  composed  of  two 
metallic  discs,  the  one  enclosed  within  the  other,  which 
are  sometimes  held  together  by  a  hinge.  The  upper 
disc,  or  cover,  was  ornamented  on  the  exterior  with 
figures  in  bas-relief,  and  on  the  interior  was  carefully 
polished  or  silvered  ;  it  was  this  face  that  reflected 
the  image.  The  second  disc,  forming  the  body  of 
the  case,  was  decorated  on  the  interior  with  figures 
engraved  with  a  sharp  point.  The  outlines  of  the 
X  2 


356  r.RKF.K  ARm.r.Ol.or.Y. 

figures  arc  often  filled  in  with  a  thin  thread   of  silver, 
while  the  background  is  gilded. 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  Greek  mirrors,  in  their 
technique,  furnish  a  threefold  subject  for  study  :  (i) 
engraving  in  outline  ;  (2)  bas-reliefs  ;  (3)  handles  in 
the  form  of  statuettes. 

(i)  Alirrors  engraved  in  outline. — Etruscan  artists 
practised  the  art  of  engraving  with  a  burin  with  great 
skill,  as  is  proved  by  numerous  mirrors  found  in 
Etruria.  But  in  this  matter,  as  in  main"  other 
matters,  the  Greeks  were  their  masters.  There  is 
no  question  that  the  Greeks  were  initiated  into  this 
art  by  the  Orientals,*  but  it  must  be  admitted  that 
the  Greeks  carried  the  art  of  engraving  on  bronze 
with  a  burin  to  the  highest  perfection.  This  great 
skill,  united  with  the  rarity  of  the  specimens  known, 
gives  a  high  value  to  the  Greek  mirrors  that  have 
been  preserved. f  One  of  the  most  beautiful  ex- 
amples among  engraved  mirrors  is  one  representing 
the  hero  eponymous  of  Corinth  (KopwOos]  crowned 
by  a  woman  (Aevicds),  who  personifies  the  Corinthian 
colony  of  Leucadia.  The  hero,  in  part  naked,  is 
seated  in  a  chair  with  massive  supports  ;  a  mantle 
covers  the  lower  part  of  his  body,  and  his  torso 
appears  in  all  the  beauty  of  its  vigorous  forms  ;  the 
head  has  a  calm  expression  of  power.  He  turns 

*  See  metal  cups  engraved  with  a  burin  from  Cyprus,  La  Fatcrc 
cCIdalie,  in  J\ev.  atr/i.,  1872. 

t  On  the  number  of  mirrors  known,  see  A.  Dumont,  Miroirs 
grecs,  in  Bull,  de  Con:  hcllcti.,  1877  ;  and  M.  Collignon,  Bull,  dc  Con: 
hellen.,  1884.  The  first  was  discovered  at  Corinth  in  1867. 


BRONZES   AND   JEWELS. 


357 


towards  Leucas,  who,  robed  in  the  himation,  is  about 
to  crown  him.  A  rosette  and  designs  of  marine 
flowers  and  plants  in  the  field  of  the  mirror  complete 


FlG.    136. — LEUCAS    AND   COKINTHUS. 

(Greek  mirror  engraved  with  a.  burin.) 


the  composition.  The  simple  taste  that  controlled 
the  arrangement  of  the  scene,  the  perfection  in  the 
drawing,  and  the  boldness  of  certain  details,  bear 
witness  to  the  finest  qualities  of  Hellenic  art.  When 


35^  <;KKI:K  AKCH.KOLOC.Y. 

we  compare  this  mirror  with  the  most  beautiful 
Etruscan  mirrors,  we  immediately  recognise  what  a 
distance  separates  this  chaste  and  elegant  style  from 
the  heaviness  of  Etruscan  designs.  Among  other 
Greek  mirrors,  one  representing  the  genius  of  cock- 
fights (in  the  Lyons  Museum),  and  one  representing 
dancing  girls,  hardly  yield  the  palm  to  this  Corinthus 
mirror.  The  study  of  these  monuments  reveals 
the  perfection  of  Greek  art  in  a  department  that 
was  long  believed  to  be  the  exclusive  possession  of 
Etruria. 

(2)  Covers  of  mirrors  with  bas-rclicfs. — Bronze 
bas-reliefs  decorating  the  covers  of  mirrors  belong  to 
a  class  already  known  ;  they  have  not  the  advantage 
of  representing  a  branch  of  Hellenic  industry  hitherto 
ignored.  But  we  must  not  underrate  the  artistic  value 
of  these  reliefs,  several  of  which  belong  to  the  best 
epoch.  The  bronze  relief  showing  Ganymede  borne 
off  by  an  eagle  is  a  masterpiece  of  graceful  art. 
(Fig.  137.)  Upon  another  relief  a  drunken  Silcmis 
carries  away  a  ALenad,  whose  knee  rests  upon  his 
hip,  while  an  Eros  with  outstretched  wings  flies  before 
them.  Although  the  style  may  be  that  of  the  later 
time,  it  has  preserved  all  the  beautiful  delicacy  of  the 
best  period  of  art.  In  general,  reliefs  on  mirrors  * 
exhibit  subjects  taken  from  the  cyclus  of  Aphrodite, 
and  from  that  of  Dionysus,  divinities  of  a  graceful, 
sensuous  character,  whose  merry  followers,  Loves,  Pans, 
and  Maenads,  inspired  the  spirit  of  the  artist ;  these 

*  They  are  few  in  number — hardly  more  than  thirty. 


BRONZES   AND 


359 


subjects  arc,  furthermore,  in  perfect  keeping  with  the 
uses  to  which  such  decorated  objects  were  put. 

(3)  Feet  of  Mirrors, — Since   Greek   mirrors   have 


FlG.    137. — GANYMEDE    BORNE    AWAY    BY    THE    EAGLE    OF    ZEUS. 

(Greek  mirror,  with  relief.) 

begun  to  be  studied  with  greater  care,  it  has  been 
recognised  that  several  statuettes,  Grasco-Italic  in 
style,  already  known,  served  as  handles  or  supports 
for  mirrors.  This  class  of  monuments  has  been 


360 


<;KI.I.K  ARCII.KOLOGV. 


./ 


rapidly  enriched  of  late.    From  the  point  of  view  of  art, 
these  figurines  form  a   very  interesting  group.     The 
^  most    ancient  of  them    have    all  the 

stiffness  of  archaic  art,  and  remind 
\  one  of  the  female  figures  that  adorned 
/  the  ridge  of  the  /Kginctan  temple. 
One  of  them,  belonging  to  a  private 
collection  in  Athens,  exhibits  Aphro- 
dite in  her  ancient  form  ;  the  goddess, 
closely  enveloped  in  a  robe  that  sug- 
gests the  outlines  of  her  bod}',  her 
feet  placed  together,  holds  in  her  hand 
a  dove,  while  two  winged  chimajras, 
with  elevated  wings,  support  the  disc 
of  the  mirror.  Quite  different  is  the 
small  figure  we  reproduce  (Fig.  138). 
The  style  is  already  in  its  perfection, 
and  the  erect  position  of  the  body, 
the  vertical  folds  of  the  dress,  in 
themselves  recall  the  severe  style  of 
the  preceding  epoch  ;  two  winged 
Loves  support  the  mirror,  around  the 
v  border  of  which  runs  an  elegant  row 
of  ovolos."* 

It  is  impossible  here  to  enumerate 
all    the     bronze     articles    known    at 
present.     This  is  the  task  for  the  branch  of  archaeo- 
logical    science     known     as     nniscograpJiy.      Special 

*  This  figurine  was  drawn  by  M.  Chaplain  for  a  work,  as  yet  un- 
published, by  MM.  Dumont  and  Chaplain,  to  whom  our  thanks  are 
due  for  the  engraving. 


FIG.    I3S. 

1IANDLK     OF     A 
STRIGII.. 

(Kngraved  with  ;i 
burin.    Athens.) 


FlG.    139. — FOOT    OF    GRKEK.    MIRROR. 


362  C.KKKK    AKCH.l.oIJKiV. 

attention,  however,  should  be  drawn  to  engraved 
bronxc  discs,  which  arc  few  in  number,  and  must 
not  be  confounded  with  the  mirrors.  The  Berlin 
Museum  possesses  a  beautiful  specimen,  represent- 
ing an  ephebus  exercising  \vith  lialtcrcs  or  weights 
used  in  jumping.  More  commonly  these  discs  are 
votive  offerings.  The  process  of  engraving  seems  to 
have  been  applied  to  other  objects  also,  as  plaques 
used  to  decorate  furniture,  or  the  handles  of  strigils, 
articles  employed  in  the  palaestra?  and  gymnasia,  with 
which  athletes  scraped  their  bodies  when  covered 
with  sweat  and  oil.  The  handle  figured  above 
(Fig.  138)  is  in  the  Varvakcion  Museum,  in  Athens. 

The  study  of  small  bronzes  still  promises  interest- 
ing discoveries.  Such  objects  show  that  nothing  can  be 
disdained  by  archaeology.  The  examination  of  these 
tiny  monuments  contributes  to  the  development  of 
skill  in  discernment  or  artistic  tact,  to  the  education 
of  the  eye,  without  which  archaeological  studies  can 
have  no  existence.  At  the  same  time,  nothing  can 
make  us  better  appreciate  how  thoroughly  united 
were  all  the  Greek  arts;  the  Hellenes  could  not 
permit  objects  of  daily  use,  products  of  the  humblest 
art,  to  be  without  a  certain  beauty  for  which  they  felt 
an  instinctive  need. 


363 


CHAPTER    II. 

JEWELLERY. 

DE  LASTEYRIE  :  L'Orfi-vreric  de/>uis  les  Tcm/>s  ancietis  jusqu'a  nos  yours,  1875. 

BILLING  :  The  Science  of  Gems,  Jewels,  etc.,  1867. 

CLEMENT  :  Catalogue  des  Bijoux  du  Musee  Napoleon  ///.,  1862. 

ARNETH  :  Die  antike  Gold- nnd  Silbernwnuinente  des  Antiken-Cabinet  in  Wien, 

1850. 
SAGLIO  :  Ceelatura,  inDaremberg  and  Saglio's  Dictionnaire  des  Antiquitcs  grecqucs 

et  run  taints,  1873  jf. 

WORK  in  precious  metals  constituted  an  important 
branch  of  Toreutics,  and  at  the  outset  the  Greeks  did 
not  separate  these  two  arts  ;  in  the  Homeric  age  the 
worker  in  bronze  (^aX/ceu?)  is  at  the  same  time  the 
goldsmith  (%pv 0-0^009).*  Greece,  for  a  long  time  poor 
in  the  precious  metals,  attributed  to  the  art  of  work- 
ing in  gold  and  in  bronze  a  legendary  origin.  The 
Cabeiri  and  the  Dactyli  were  the  first  blacksmiths, 
and  the  Telchines  were  the  first  goldsmiths.  We  have 
already  remarked  that  these  legends  most  commonly 
disguise  the  fact  of  borrowing  from  the  Asiatic  Orient. 
The  part  taken  by  the  East  in  the  initiation  of  the 
Greeks  into  the  processes  of  these  minor  but  dainty 
arts  is  evident  ;  jewels  of  gold  and  silver,  and  vases  of 
precious  metals,  were  pre-eminently  objects  of  com- 
merce, introduced  by  the  Phoenician  traders.  The 
discoveries  at  Mycenae  leave  no  doubt  on  this  point. 

*  Homer,  Odyss.  iii.  425 — 432. 


364  GRKKK    AKCH.KOI.or.Y. 

In  the  Homeric  age  the  articles  in  metal  most  in  favour 
came  from  abroad ;  the  highest  praise  that  Homer  can 
bestow  upon  them  is  to  say  that  they  \vcrc  made  at 
Cyprus  or  at  Sidon.  Agamemnon's  breastplate  and 
chariot  were  a  present  from  the  King  of  Cyprus  ;*  the 
silver  crater  given  as  a  prix.e  by  .Achilles  at  the 
funeral  games  in  honour  of  Patroclus  is  the  work  of 
Sidonian  artists. f  The  monuments  that  best  enable 
us  to  understand  Homeric  descriptions  are  pieces  of 
jewellery  found  in  Cyprus  and  in  Rhodes,  and  even  in 
Italy.  J  These  cups,  which  arc  of  engraved  silver, 
worked  in  repousse,  exhibit  warlike  or  religious  scenes, 
arranged  in  zones,  and  give  us  an  accurate  idea  of  the 
precious  vases  imported  by  Phoenician  sailors  into 
Greece,  which  furnish  the  principal  elements  of  the 
Homeric  descriptions. 

Furthermore,  jewels  of  the  earliest  style,  found  in 
Greek  countries,  reveal  distinctly  the  influence  exer- 
cised by  the  East  upon  objects  of  luxury  and 
ornament  of  the  epoch  of  the  eighth  century  p..r. 
Not  to  multiply  examples,  we  will  mention  an  in- 
teresting band  of  stamped  gold  found  at  Athens,  § 
which  shows  a  procession  of  animals  distinctly  sug- 
gesting, both  in  arrangement  and  in  style,  the  zones 

*   I  Tomer,  Iliad  xi.  19.  t   Homer,  Iliad  xxiii.  741. 

\  See  the  cups  from  Cittium  and  Larnaka  in  the  Museum  of  the 
Louvre,  and  especially  the  beautiful  patera  from  Amathus,  published 
by  Colonna-Ceccaldi,  Rev.  arch.,  1876.  [Cf.  Helbig,  Das  Hotnerischc 
Epos,  1884.] 

§  Now  in  the  Louvre.  This  museum  possesses  gold  ornaments, 
studs,  or  earrings,  decorated  with  human  heads,  where  the  hair  is 
dressed  in  Egyptian  style.  These  jewels  were  found  at  Megara. 


BRONZES   AND   JEWELS.  365 

of  Asiatic  animals.  The  most  important  group  of 
jewels  of  this  period  is  composed  of  those  dis- 
covered at  Rhodes  by  Salzmann,  in  the  necropolis 
of  Cameirus.  The  Oriental  style  characterising  them 
is  apparent  in  the  stamped  plaques  of  very  pale  gold, 
that  belong  to  a  necklace.  They  exhibit  two  types 
alternately,  in  the  one  a  Centaur  with  human  feet 
and  Egyptian  head-dress,  represented  in  his  most 
ancient  form,  in  the  other  an  Asiatic  goddess,  either 
the  Persian  Artemis  or  Anaitis,  holding  a  lion  or  a 
panther  by  each  hand. 

With  decorative  types,  the  Greeks  also  received 
from  the  East  a  knowledge  of  technical  processes  ; 
thus  the  art  of  working  in  precious  metals,  as  well 
as  in  other  metals,  was  developed  in  Asiatic  Greece. 
The  toreuticians  of  Samos  and  of  Chios  were  gold- 
smiths as  well,  and  they  quickly  attained  such  skill 
in  workmanship  that  the  East  borrowed  from  them 
in  turn.  Henceforth  Greek  artists  lavished  on  the 
execution  of  objects  of  luxury  and  ornament  such 
exquisite  taste  and  such  perfection  in  technique,  that 
even  the  Etruscans,  consummate  masters  of  the  art  of 
working  in  precious  metals,  were  constrained  to  be- 
come their  imitators. 

Jewels  found  in  Greece  proper  are  quite  rare  ;  one 
of  the  richest  collections  of  Greek  jewels,  that  of  the 
Hermitage  in  St.  Petersburg,  comes  from  the 
ancient  Panticapaeum  (now  Kertch)  in  the  Crimea.* 

*  These  jewels  are  published  in  the  Antiquith  da  Bosphore 
Cinunerien,  1854,  and  in  the  Comptes  rendiis  dc  la  Commission  arclico- 
logique  dc  Saint- Petersboitrg.  [See  C.  T.  Newton,  Greek  Art  in  the 


366  C.REKK    ARCII.KOLOGV. 

How  did  works  of  art,  evidently  of  Greek  origin, 
penetrate  to  a  country  so  remote  ?  The  fact  need 
not  surprise  us,  if  it  be  remembered  that  in  the  fifth 
and  fourth  centuries  i;.<  .  the  fame  of  Greek  artists  had 
extended  so  far  that  even  princes  of  the  Cimmerian 
Hosphorus  secured  their  services  either  at  Athens  or 
in  their  own  country.  Another  locality  still  rich  in 
Greek  jewels  is  Ktruria  :  the  Etruscan  tomb-cities  of 
Vulci  and  of  C;ere  furnished  the  materials  of  the 
collection  in  the  Gregorian  Museum  in  Rome,  and  of 
the  Campana  collection,  the  property  of  the  Louvre. 
In  spite  of  their  Etruscan  origin,  these  articles  are 
none  the  less  valuable  in  the  history  of  the  art  of 
working  in  gold  among  the  Greeks.  They  belong  to 
a  period  when  ancient  Etruscan  art,  which  was  Asiatic 
in  origin,  had  given  place  to  an  art  derived  from 
Greece.  At  this  time  the  relations  between  these 
countries  were  very  intimate,  and  Hellenic  taste  ruled 
in  these  dainty  pieces  of  work,  of  which  the  careful- 
ness of  detail  was  in  perfect  keeping  with  the 
peculiarities  of  Etruscan  genius. 

The  technique  of  Greek  jewels  still  presents  many 
problems  that  demand  careful  stud}-.  In  our  day 
Roman  jewellers,  the  MM.  Castcllani,  have  attempted 
to  solve  them  by  practical  experiments,  and  by  imi- 
tations executed  with  remarkable  skill.*  And  yet  it 


Kimmtrian  Bosporos,   in   his  Essays  on    Art  and  Archeology,  1880, 

P-  373./-1 

*  Castellani,  Communication  faite  a  i~  Academic  dcs  Insc.  ct  Jltl/a- 
Lett  res,  2Oth  December,  1860,  and  Delia  orificcria  ftaliann,  Kume, 
1872. 


BRONZES   AND   JEWELS.  367 

must  be  a-dmitted  that  on  certain  points  the  secrets 
of  these  ancient  goldsmiths  have  not  been  discovered 
and  disclosed  ;  it  is  still  a  matter  for  inquiry  as  to 
how  Greek  and  Etruscan  artists  gave  their  works 
such  an  inimitable  beauty  and  finish.  Granulation,  a 
kind  of  decoration  that  consists  of  covering  the  sur- 
face of  gold-leaf  with  minute  and  almost  invisible 
bosses  of  gold,  a  process  employed  in  the  majority 
of  Etrusco-Greek  jewels,  is  one  of  the  secrets  that 
modern  art  despairs  of  discovering. 

The  guiding  principle  of  Greek  artists  seems  to 
have  been  the  following:  to  regard  workmanship  as  of 
far  greater  importance  than  the  materials  employed. 
Thus  it  was  not  the  intrinsic  worth  of  precious  metals 
that  gave  to  Greek  jewels  their  high  value  ;  it  was 
the  exquisite  work  upon  the  metal,  and  the  fancy 
exercised  in  the  ornamentation.  The  elements  of  orna- 
mentation are  taken  from  nature  ;  they  include  fruits, 
flowers,  and  foliage,  with  which  is  joined  imitation 
of  the  human  body.  All  these  motives  are  treated 
with  an  art  that  is  rich  in  resources,  the  sole  law  in 
which  is  the  artist's  fancy.  At  the  same  time,  the 
use  to  which  the  jewels  were  to  be  put  imposed  cer- 
tain limitations  upon  the  artist ;  thus  fancy  was  freer 
in  the  decoration  of  pendants  of  earrings  and  of  neck- 
laces, than  in  that  of  bracelets  or  crowns,  where  art 
was  more  severe. 

Before  specifying  certain  types  adopted  by  Greek 
jewellers,  it  is  necessary  to  distinguish,  among  ancient 
jewels,  those  that  were  intended  to  be  worn,  and 
those  that  were  used  in  connection  with  the  dead. 


<;KKKK  AK<  11  I:OL<K;Y. 


The  latter  were  merely  objects  for  display,  placed 
upon  the  dead  on  the  day  of  the  funeral,  and  buried 
with  him.  It  was  not  uncommon  to  save  real  jewels 
by  providing  substitutes  for  them  in  this  way.  Such 
arc  the  crowns  found  in  many  Greek  tombs;*  the)' 
imitated  the  foliage  of  the  oak  and  of  the  laurel,  etc.; 
but  the  extreme  thinness  of  the  gold  leaves,  beaten 
where  they  had  been  cut,  shows  clearly  that  they 
were  made  only  for  transient  use.  It  is  hardly 
necessary  to  remark  that  the  jeweller's  art  reserved 
its  best  resources  and  its  highest  skill  for  the  orna- 
ments destined  to  be  permanently  worn. 

It  would  be  difficult  to  pass  in  review  all  the 
articles  designed  for  ornaments  in  use  among  women, 
upon  which  the  goldsmith  exercised  his  fancy  ;  in- 
dividual taste  and  caprice,  as  well  as  fashion,  pre- 
vailed, and  thus  was  created  an  infinite  diversity 
of  types.  \\'e  will  mention  only  a  few  examples. 
One  of  the  most  beautiful  Etrusco-Greek  jewels  in 
the  Louvre  is  a  woman's  diadem,  or  sttpliane,  where 
beads  of  glass-paste  and  enamelled  palm  leaves 
are  combined  with  ornaments  of  engraved  gold."  t 
This  diadem  is  in  imitation  of  a  wreath  composed 
of  daisies  and  other  smaller  flowers,  with  which 
are  combined  bunches  of  foliage  of  exquisite  work- 

*  The  Museum  of  Varvakeion,  in  Athens,  possesses  golden  crowns 
of  this  class.  Such  may  also  he  seen  in  the  Louvre,  in  the  Hei milage 
Museum  at  St.  Petersburg,  r,iul  in  the  (Iregorian  Museum  in  the 
Vatican.  Ancient  writers  make  reference  to  this  custom.  Menancler 
(aptul  Stobaeus,  Flor.  cxiii.  2)  speaks  of  a  richly  adorned  corpse  : 
iroAuTfX^jj  vfKp6s. 

t  Hijoiix du  Mush  Napo'con  Iff.,  No.  I. 


BRONZES    AND   JEWELS. 

manship.  This  ornament  is  very  different  from  a 
superb  golden  crown  found  at  Armento,  now  the 
property  of  the  Antiquarium  at  Munich.  The  latter 
is  composed  of  branches  of  oak-leaves,  with  which 
intertwine  garlands  of  flowers,  while  in  the  upper 
portion  winged  figures  stand  in  the  midst  of  the  leaf- 
work.  The  inscription  cut  upon  the  side  of  one  of 
these  figurines  indicates  the  votive  character  of  this 
work  of  art :  "  Creithonius  dedicated  this  crown." 
Perhaps  it  formed  part  of  the  treasure  of  some 
temple. 

Necklaces  were  often  composed  of  several  rows  of 
small  chains,  with  pendants  ;  the  central  pendant, 
largest  in  size,  showed  the  most  careful  workmanship, 
and  represented  a  flower,  or  the  head  of  a  divinity. 
The  Museum  of  the  Hermitage,  in  St.  Petersburg,  is 
very  rich  in  jewels  of  this  class,  which  were  found  in 
the  Crimea.  We  mention  especially  a  magnificent 
pendant,  from  the  tomb  of  a  priestess  of  Demeter. 
Small  chains  and  tassels  of  gold  are  suspended  from 
an  engraved  plaque  that  represents  a  Nereid  carrying 
the  greaves  of  Achilles'  armour.  It  was,  however, 
chiefly  in  the  execution  of  the  pendants  of  earrings 
that  goldsmiths  showed  their  extraordinary  fertility 
of  invention.  At  the  same  time  the  motive  is  very 
simple — an  engraved  button,  surmounting  a  smaller 
figure  worked  in  repousse,  with  a  skilful  combination 
of  chains  and  figures,  some  of  which  are  placed  in 
groups.  One  of  the  most  wonderful  instances  of 
this  skill  of  workmanship  is  a  pair  of  earring  pend- 
ants found  in  a  tomb  in  Bolsena ;  here,  on  the 
Y 


3/o 


CKFKK    AKUI.l.OI.OC.Y. 


tiniest  scale,  the  artist  has  reproduced  the  chariot  of 
the  Sun,  driven  by  the  god,  accompanied 
by  winded  Victories.  Above  this  is  a 
sort  of  cupola,  from  which  hang  small 
chains,  terminated  by  palm-leaf  orna- 
ments and  tiny  amphoric.  At  the  sight 
of  this  marvel  of  technical  skill  we  may 
without  difficulty  form  some  conception 
of  the  masterpieces  of  delicate  work 
ascribed  to  Greek  toreuticians,  such  as 
Callicratcs  of  Laccd.emon,  and  Myrmi- 
cides  of  .Athens.  It  was  always  the 

S       same    motive — a    small     iron    quadriga 

w 

<  s,  that  a  fly  might  cover  with  its  wings. 

•£.         Bracelets  and   fibuluj,  or  pins  for  the 
~  71   pcplus,  are  numerous  in  our   museums. 
~\  1   Ordinarily  the  work  is  more  simple  than 
i-;2_  in    the    earrings;    the    bracelet  is    coin- 
<5       monly   composed  of  large  engraved  cir- 
^       cular   discs,  or  of  plaques   in   repousse, 
united  by    bands    and  furnished   with  a 
clasp.     The  one  here  figured  (Fig.  140), 
which  is  of  the  Roman  epoch,  is   com- 
posed   of   Mitylcruean    hcctaj,   mounted 
with    small   garnets.       In    Greek  tombs 
arc  also  found    gold   and  silver  plaques 
of  repousse  work,  that  must   have   been 
used  to  decorate  garments.     Such  is  the 
plaque    (Fig.    141)  found    near    Athens, 
giving    a    very  pretty    specimen  of  the 
subjects   that   artists  liked   to  treat :  a  young  girl   is 


P.KON/.ES   AND    JEWELS. 


571 


weighing  t\vo  Loves  in  a  balance — an  exquisite  illus- 
tration of  some  epigrams  in  the  Anthology,  where 
poets  express  with  keen  analysis  the  subtlest  emotions 
of  the  soul.  The  mythology  of  love  inspired  these 
artists  in  decorating  articles  for  ornament,  and  ir 
making  them  conform  to  the 
refined  taste  of  the  more  culti- 
vated classes  of  society. 

To  the  art  of  chasing  are 
due  those  large  pieces  of  jewel- 
lery, the  use  of  which  was  very 
common  in  Greece  in  the 
Macedonian  epoch.  Under  the 
successors  of  Alexander,  Greek 
life  lost  its  original  simplicity, 
and  the  luxury  displayed  in 
the  courts  of  these  rulers  con- 
tributed rapidly  to  the  growth  of  this  branch  of 
industrial  art.  *  Thus  the  artists  mentioned  by 
Pliny  as  masters  in  the  art  of  engraving  are  for 
the  most  part  contemporaries  of  the  Ptolcmys 
or  of  the  Selcucidre.  Mentor,  Acragas,  Boethus,  are 
the  most  brilliant  among  these  torcuticians,  who, 
designated  by  the  term  "  minor  artists  "  (fJUKpore^vai), 
exercised  their  talents  in  decorating  with  reliefs  vases 
of  precious  metal.  We  can  hardly  estimate  their 
talent  without  the  aid  of  ancient  writers  ;  silver  vases 
of  the  best  Greek  period  arc  extremely  rare.  The 

"'  See    in    Athenreus    (v.     29-30)     ihe    de>ciiption    of    a    spectacle 
given  by  Ptolemy  Philadelphia,  where   were  carried  vases  with  Bacchic 
subjects  and  theatrical  masks,  chased  in  high  relief. 
Y    2 


Fir..   141. 

SII.VKR  I'LAIJUK. 

(Found    in    Attica.) 


3/2  CKKKK    AK(  H.I.OI.OCV. 

Munich  vase,  representing  captive  Trojans,  and  the 
vase  at  the  Hermitage  (found  at  Nicopol),  on  which 
are  figured  Scythians  in  their  national  costume,  reveal 
a  pure  Greek  style,  but  arc  probably  of  a  later 
date.  In  the  Roman  epoch  the  taste  for  vases  of 
gold  and  silver  became  general,  but  the  style  suffered 
marked  degeneration.  There  was  a  profusion  of 
ornament,  relief  became  of  exaggerated  height,  and 
everything  was  sacrificed  to  an  evident  striving  after 
richness  of  effect.  Among  the  specimens  of  ancient 
silver  ware  that  have  come  down  to  us,  there  are  very 
few  in  which  purity  of  style  and  moderation  in  the 
use  of  ornament  bear  witness  that  they  arc  copies  of 
Greek  originals.* 

*  For  example,  a  cup  found  at  Porto-d'Anzio,  known  as  the  Corsini 
Cup.     See  Michaelis,  Das  corsiniscfic  Silbergefiiss,  1859. 


373 


GENERAL     INDEX. 

(NAMES  OK  ARTISTS  ARE  PRINTED  IN  S.MAI. i.  CAPITALS.) 


A. 

Abacus,  44. 
Abrocomas,  311. 
Acamatuis  tribe,  96. 
Achaeans,  2,  10. 
Achtrnania,  209. 
Achilles,  195,  288,  293,  296, 

302,  364,  369  ;   shield  of, 

28. 

ACRAGAS,  toreutician,  371. 
Acropolis     of    Athens   (see 

also    under   Athens),   68, 

88,  121,  134,  155,  167. 
Acroleria,  66. 
Actium,  114. 
Adler,  178. 
Adonis,  212. 
/Kacus,  130. 
/Egean  Islands,  13. 
/Kgina,     77,    78,     120,    122, 

130,    188,    240,   244,    282, 

327  ;  temple  at,  49,  62,  65  ; 

marbles    from,    128,    349; 

school  of,  io£,  127,  349. 
/Kgisthus,  10. 
shneid  ot  Virgil,  41. 
^".olians,  4. 
Aettts  (derds),  48. 
/Exone,  307. 
Africa,  244. 

AGAMEDES,  architect,  41. 
Agamemnon,   10,   115,  2i*>, 

242,  364. 
Agathocles,  334. 
AGATHOPUS,    gem  -  cutte-, 

339- 
AGELADAS,    sculptor,    122, 

123,    124,    140,   148,    1=4, 

180,  343- 
AGESANORITS,  sculptor  (i), 

name      with      Venus     de 

Milo,  207  ;  (2)  Khodian, 

218. 


Aglaurus,  164,  166,  167,  168. 

Agon,  93. 

AGORACRITUS,  sculptor,  155. 

Agrigentum,  42,  294,  32 ). 

Agrippa,  Pantheon  of,  61  ; 
Apoxyoinenits  of,  210. 

Agylla,  288. 

Aix,  214. 

Ajax,  130. 

"  Akaios,"  10. 

Akraiphia,  115. 

A/al'astron,  274,  286. 

ALCA.MENES,  sculptor,  65, 
155,  '73.  184,  i83,  207. 

Alcimenes  23. 

Alcinoiis,  Palace  of,  f  3. 

Alexander,  63,  138,  212,  260, 
291,  333  ;  tportraits  ot, 
210;  signet  of,  358. 

Alexander  of  Phera;,  333. 

Alexandria,  212. 

Alexandrine  Age,  194. 

Alpheius,  177,  182. 

Alphonso  II.,  Duke  of  Fer 
rara,  335. 

Altis  of  Olympia,  121,  177. 

ALXENOR.  sculptor,  224. 

Alyattes,  Crater  of,  107. 

ALYi'i'US,  sculptor,  193. 

Alyzia,  209. 

A.MASIS,  vase  painter,  2:5. 

Amathus,  364 

Amazon,  Amazons,  86,  156, 
159,  167,  188,  198,  213, 
307  ;  of  Cresilas,  190  ;  ol 
Pheidias,  190;  of  Phrad 
mon,  190;  of  Polycleiuis, 
190 ;  in  Lansdowne  col- 
lection, 190. 

Ambracia.  102,  109. 

Amphalces,  127. 

Amphion,  219. 

Amphipolis,  333. 

Amphiprostyle,  63. 


Amphitrite,  166,  302. 

Amphora,  267,  2ji,  30:,  302, 
308,  324  ;  Panathen.Uc, 
297. 

Amulets,  Bronze,  346. 

Amycla,',  16  ;  Apollo  of,  i:>j, 
294. 

A.MYCL.Kfs,  sculptor,  126. 

Anaitis,  365. 

"  Anatolian  "  art,  25. 

ANAXAGORAS,  sculptor,  128. 

AXUOCIDKS,  vase  -  painter, 
302. 

ANGELIOX,  sculptor,  109. 

Annulets,  fillets  under 
Doric  capital,  44. 

Antetix,  79. 

ANTENOU,  sculptor,  138. 

Anthology,  148,  201,  210, 
340,  341,  371. 

ANTIGO.NUS  (i)  sculp'or, 
213  ;  Antigonus  (2)  lulcr 
334- 

Antiochus  IV.,  212,  334. 

Antiope,  219. 

Ant  is.  Temples  in,  63. 

Antonia  Tryphsena,  103. 

Antony,  Mark,  338. 

Anzio,  Porto  d',  372. 

AFELLES,  painter,  261. 

Aphrodisias,  351. 

Aphrodite,  166,  204,  257 
340,  358  ;  of  Alcamenes 
("  in  the  gardens  "),  173  ; 
Anadyomene,  258;  archaic 
on  mirror,  360  :  bronze, 
35°.  35 :  I  °f  Canachus, 
122  ;  at  Cnidus,  by  Praxi- 
teles, 2  i  ;  temple  at 
Megara,  196  ;  of  Milp, 
208  ;  Pandemus,  147  ;  in 
Elis,  196 ;  type  of,  by 
Praxiteles,  201. 

Aptera,  213. 


374 


r.RF.KK    AUril.r.OI.OCY. 


A/>i>l-attr,  170. 

ARISTION  (i)  Attic  sculptor 

Athena  -(lOntiinifif):  — 

Apollo,    30,    205,    304,    324, 

from      I'aros,      131  ;      (.-) 

Archegetis  in  Athens,  85  ; 

332;    Agjieus,    102;    of 

Aiivtion,      stile     of,      l.y 

(  'hali  i.  e,  :us,    41   ;     fydo- 

Amycl.b,    119.    204  ;    l>e- 

AriNt.x  Its,  i  ;;,  224. 

lu.i,    {io  ;     1  .<  iin.i.i,    i-^  ; 

li;ui.    42,   </-•  ;  lemple.  72  : 

Ai;isi,.(  I  is     (i)   faili.-r    i.f 

I'arthenos  (at  Athens),"  by 

lemple    at      De'ptii,     41  ; 

l'li-.i-ta>,    i.M  ;    (A  so,,  ,,f 

1'liei.lias,      70,      IS^.     160, 

Didymajan,      55.    5S,     7>, 

rlc.rtas;     '  -;  )    Mlllp!..r    of 

74  .;  Polias(Krei;hlheuili), 

73  ;    by    Canachiis.    i.>.  ,  ; 

the  stele  of  Aii>tii'ii,  137, 

.=.••,  7J,  >''••{,  -'45,  246,  ..4,)  ; 

Kpimrius    at   Bass.x-,   49, 

224. 

I'olias      at     1'riene.      S7  ; 

?<•.       i£8;      and      Three 

Aristophanes,  94,  314. 

Hi-Aa^aAot       ("  1'roma- 

Graces,     i«>  ',    Ismenian, 

AriMotlc,  23. 

(  luis    '),    i  ^4    ;    temple  at 

statue  by  Canachus,  12.-  ; 

AI;IS  K>\|..MTS,       coin      en- 

.-V'.gilia.  49,(  2.  <>6  ;  teni|>le 

Musagetes,       19'',      202  ; 

«ra\er,  331. 

at    Kleusis,    82  ;    lemptcs 

N)  mphegetes,     142;     of 

Arniento,  321,  369. 

al    Sparta,  41,  120;    tem- 

Ore homenus,      115,     13.1  ; 

Arneth.  363. 

ple  at  Syracuse.  41). 

Pcrgamenc,     Maine      l>v 

Anaihi,  n,  no,  115. 

Athens  (i,'e  also  Acropolis, 

Onitas,    128;    Piombino, 

"  Atria  and  I'ilMUs,"  214. 

Atlic,     Choragic     niuiiti- 

122,     345  ;     1'toiis,     115  ; 

Arris,  51. 

iiient  of  I.ysicralcs,  Dio- 

I  yiliian,    92  ;    st.itue    by 

Ar-iui  i;.  .-12,  -541. 

nysiac      thcalre,      Krccli- 

Telecles  anil  Theodorus, 

Artemis,    30,    i.>7,  ic.2,   332, 

theuni,    Parthenon,    1'r.i- 

106  ',     stiHt'Octomts      202  ' 

pytica.     '1  heseum,     etc.), 

S<  siar.  us,  205  ;  of  Tenea, 

ronian,    103;     Ilelian,   20, 

Athuiian,   Athenians,  49, 

115,    116,    134  ;  of  Tbera, 

103    (jdaror),     in   ;    'I'er- 

=.f<,  60,  65,  73,  74,  80    no, 

n.s;    small    bronze   from 

sian,  30,    365  ;   1'arthenos, 

>2>,      213,     250,     303,       {27, 

Athens,    349  ;     Pomtales, 

of  Neapolis,  23  s;    archn- 

540,   370  ;  Athenians  anil 

•348  ;     with    Heracles    on 

islic    figure    in      Naples, 

Aiua/uns,  188  ;  museums 

bn  n/c  plaijiie,  -552. 

144  ;   temple  at    Kphc-us, 

i  tf,     151.    158,     i6fi,    j  />, 

An.ilii.Mih>,,    Rein  ct.ttrr. 

5.(..    56  ;  at  Magnesia,  63  ; 

2.0.      236,     2_5->,      -J'.J,      275, 

339- 

at    Syiai  live,  4^. 

288,    296,    -,-v9,     {f.2,    3..;, 

An.  1.1  dMi's    (i)     sculptor, 

Artrtniiia,  197. 

3'",    3'?-    3  '5.    3'S.    3'1-', 

2-18  ;   (->)  sitiiptc.r,   v  11  ol 

Ar\  bailie  Ices  thus,  273. 

/•S  ;     Kcole     rranvaise. 

Ntstor,  220. 

AryMlits,    273,    28f,,     3ort, 

LSo  ;   Ministry  (>f  Kiluca- 

A/'ti.tyeiiitniis  of  I.ysippuc, 

.r-7,  709,  310.    ;n. 

lloll,   :..34. 

210. 

Asclrpius,  Ascle|  emu,    .Ks- 

Atlienajus,  212,   271,  371. 

A«|iiilcjp,  305. 

culapium,  58.  Co,  7^,  114, 

Alhenagoras,  i«.>5. 

Ara--osiyle.  64. 

if/8  ;    (lotiys,     n,6,    zj2. 

AIIIKMON,       gem  -cutter, 

Arcadia,  359. 

332. 

339- 

Areas,  330. 

•\  i  iiKNoiiiiKfs,       sculptor, 

Arcrsilas,  cup  of,  202. 

41,    43.    4S,    50,    54,    "". 

218. 

Athlete,  H.-ad  of,  133,134; 

Aiiicrica,  1  17. 

?ro!      7'        '        '     3  ' 

portraits  of,  1  1  1,  115. 

Archaic  coins,    329  ;    sculp- 

Asian school,  118. 

Atlas,  180. 

ture,  izoff. 

"Asiatic   '  style,    vases   of, 

"  Atreus,  Treasury  of,"  38 

Arch.ii-.tic      art,     144,     328, 

285. 

Attaliilic,  213. 

329.  352. 

Asi'ASH  s,  gem-cutter,  158, 

Attains,  Stoa  of,  86. 

A  tc>.  aelrgische      Ztitiinj;, 

339- 

Attir,      Attica      (see      also 

101. 

Aspronisi,  5. 

Athens),   12,    16,  65,  103, 

AVCIIKKMUS,    sculptor,    31, 

Assos,  1  17. 

i,/',    206,    222,    24  \,    282, 

107. 

Assur.  18. 

2>)4,  310,  ',12  ;  myths,  86, 

An  hitfcture,  35     99. 

Assyiia,    i,    t-,    17,    21,   4% 

292,    29  1  ;     school,    132, 

Aii.hiir.-ive,  45. 

£.',  117,  288". 

14%  3°'- 

Are-.  iC8. 

Astragal  d,;-  I'.eadincs). 

Atys,  260. 

Arethusa,  328,  331. 

Astragalizoiites   of  Praxi- 

Augustus, 338.  342. 

Argive     school,     123,     189, 

teles,  1QO. 

Aiiii-triii,  bron/e  from    Do- 

3*3 

Athena  (Minerva*,    65,  73. 

il..na,   348. 

Argive  -  Sicyonian     school, 

Hi,    131,    134,    140,    144, 

Aulis,  250. 

1<>2,    2oS. 

148,    162,    i6j,    167,    171., 

Ausouius,  209. 

Atgolis.  12,  16,  36. 

i-S,    215,    216,    233,    234, 

Argos,  88,  109,  120,  126,  14", 

2y7,    299,    302-    3>o,    3". 

189,    193,   326,    329  ;  He- 

323,    324,    329,   340,    345  ; 

B. 

ra;um  at,  189. 

bronze  (Oppermann    col- 

Aliadne,  293. 

lr<:tion),  348;  Alea,   tem- 

Babylon,   Babylonia,  8,  25, 

Arima-pe,  93. 

.        pie  at  Tegea,  50,  63,  155  ; 

54- 

GENERAL    INDEX. 


575 


Bncchanalibus,      Senatus- 

Bronzes,      343  <T.  ;     bronze 

consiiltnm  de,  330. 

plaques,  351  ff.  ;  of  Siris, 

Bacchante,  257,  304. 

352. 

Bacchus    (see  also   Diony- 

Brunn,   27,    iot,    128,    143, 

sus),  228,  303. 

148,  163,  214. 

Barker,  W.,  258. 

BKYAXIS,  sculptor,  197. 

Bassae,  49.  56,  60. 

BRYGUS,  vase  painter,  304. 

BATHVCLES,  sculptor,  etc., 

"  Bucchero  nero,"  265. 

32,  109. 

Budriin,  197. 

Beadings    (astraga',     fillet- 

Bull,  Farnese,  218. 

and  -bead,  or  pearl  mould- 

Bunarbashi, 4. 

ing).  52,  53,  8j. 

BUPALUS,  sculptor,  107. 

Bee,  on  coins  of  Ephesus, 

Burial  -  scenes,     on    white 

327. 

lecythi,  31^. 

Beilerophon.  242. 

BCTADES,  potter,  105. 

Belvedere  Torso  in  Vatican, 

Byzantium.  236. 

220. 

BYZES,  sculptor,  108. 

Beni-Hassan,  47. 

Benndorf,  44,   83,  112,  163, 

C. 

228,  312,  317,  322. 

Bergama,   214. 

Cabeiri,  363. 

Berlin    Museum,  215,  250, 

Cabinet  des  Medailles   (see 

262,    302,    324,    336,    351, 

Paris). 

362. 

CACHRYLION,  vase-painter, 

Betrothal   scene,    on    gem, 

265,  275,  302. 

339; 

Crflattira,  343,  363. 

Beule,   40.   42,    73,   76,   83, 

Caere,  288,  294,  366. 

106,  161,  325. 

Caesars,  4. 

Riga,  on  coins  of  Syracuse, 

Ca'icus,  195. 

323. 

CALAMIS,     sculptor,     146, 

Billing,  335,  363. 

147,  248,  343. 

Birch,  261,  293. 

Callias,  134. 

Black-figured    vases,     279, 

CALLICRATES,    toreutician, 

290  ;  plaques,  324. 

37°- 

Blanc,  40,  42. 

CAI.LIMACHUS,  59,  70,  140. 

Blouet,  177. 

CALLITELES,  sculptor,  128, 

BGcher,  188. 

248. 

Boeckh,  200. 

GALLON    d)  of  Elis,   121  ; 

BOEDAS,  sculptor,  211. 

(2)  of  ^Egina,  127. 

Boeotia,   16,    115,  222,   243, 

CALLONIDES,  sculptor,  134. 

308,  310  ;  sculptor,  172. 

Calais  (KaAms),  269,  308. 

BoETHL's     (i)    gem-cutter, 

Calydoniin      Boar     Hunt, 

339  ;  (2)  toreutician,  371. 

195,  288,  293. 

Bohn,  83,  215. 

Calyptra  (KaAu'nrpu),  254. 

Bolsena,  369. 

Cameirus,  30,  244,  24*5,  309, 

Boinbyliiis,  273,  286. 

.365. 

Boreas,  301. 

L-ameo,    cameos,  336.   340  ;   : 

Bosporus  (Cimmerian),  311, 

Gonzaga,  341  ;  in  Vienna, 

365- 

341  ;  St.  Chapelle,  342. 

Botta,  21. 

Campana     collection,    288, 

Botticher,  40,  178. 

366. 

Boustro/>hetian,  290. 

CANACHCS,    sculptor,    122, 

Boys  playing    at   knuckle- 

123, 343- 

bones       (astragaltzontes), 

Canephori,  of  Polycleitus, 

group     by      Polycleitus, 

190. 

190. 

Canina,  76. 

Bracteie,  8. 

Canistrntn,  315. 

Branchidae  (see  also  Didy- 

Canon,  116  ;  of  Polycleitus, 

mi),  116,  134  246. 

192  ;  of  Lysippus,  210. 

British   Museum,    103,  116, 

Cantharus,  271,  308. 

122,    141,    148,    162,    163, 

Capitoline      Museum     (see 

166,    168,    188,    190,    198, 

Rome). 

207,  258,  262,  309,  355. 

Cappadocia,  24. 

Caracalla,  2or. 

Carapanos  collection,  from 
Dodona,  126,  315,  348, 
352. 

Car-ceres,  98. 

Carchesiont  271,  272. 

Caria,  197. 

Carpo,  163. 

Carrey,  162,  164. 

Carthage,  41. 

Caryatidae,  90,  174. 

Castellani,  366. 

Ccitagusa,  of  Praxiteles,  204. 

Catana,  331,  333. 

Caunus,  88. 

Cecrops,  164,  166,  167  ; 
daughters  of,  174. 

Celebe  (iceXejSq),  267,  288, 
308. 

Cella,  63. 

Celtic  Galatians,  213. 

Census,  184. 

Centaurs,  65,  152,  167,  184, 
198,  271,  293,  365. 

Centocelle  Torso,  in  Vati- 
can, 202. 

Ceos,  243,  318. 

CKPHISODOTUS,      sculptor, 

2OO,    2O5. 

Cephissus,  164,  166. 
Ceramicus,  at  Athens.  222. 
Ceramics(j^  PaintedVases). 
Cercopes,  112. 
Cervetri,  288. 
Cesnola,  Di,  14,  17. 
Chabas,  De,  14. 
|    Chabouillet,  339. 
Chalcidice,  329. 
Chaplain,  i,  261,  360. 
CHARES,  sculptor,  218,  264. 

288. 

Charidemus,  34;. 
Charlies  (Xapire?,  Graces), 

102,  105,  142,  159    190. 
Charmides,  159- 
Charon,  228,  318. 
CHARTAS,  sculptor,  109. 
CHEIRON,  vase-painter,  2^4. 
CHELIS,  vase-painter,  265. 
|   CHKRSII'HRON,  architect, 50. 
1   Chimaera,  22,  242  ;  on  co  ns 

of  Sicyon,  329. 
CHIONIS,  sculptor,  126. 
Chios,  Chian,  28,  30,  31,  73, 

107,  122,  365. 
Chipiez,  40,  73,  76- 
Choragus,     Choragic,     9^  ; 
monument  of  Lysicrates, 
96,  299. 

Chrysapha,  114. 
Chryselephantine,  160. 
CHRYSOTIIEMIS,    sculptors, 


176 


r.RKF.K    AK<  l(  l-.nl.or.Y. 


Chthonian  divinit  cs,  248. 

Cibyra,  98. 

Cicynra,  96. 

Cimmerian    Bosporus    311, 

Cimon  (i)  of  Athens.  152, 
154:  (2)  CI.MON  ofClc<ui:c, 
coin-engraver,  331,  332. 

Cippus,  222. 

Citiinin,  364. 

Citylus,  127. 

Cladcus,  177,  183. 

Clarac,  101. 

Clazorncnae,  333. 

CI.KAKIIIUS,  sculptor,  109 

Clement,  363. 

CI.EIKTAS,  98,  121. 

Cl.KOMKNF.S,  sculptor,  22O. 

Cleon;i:,  109,  332. 

Cleosthenes,  123. 

CLITIAS,  vase-painter,  277. 

Clytzmnestra,  10,  112. 

Cnidus,  88  ;  Aphrodite  at, 
by  Praxiteles,  201. 

C(KNfs,  gem-cutter,  339. 

Coins,  325  ff. 

Cologne,  205 

Colonna-Ceccaldi,  364. 

Colossus  of  Rhode-,  218. 

Coi.cn  ES,  sculptor,  155. 

Colour  (see  also  Poly- 
chromy)  on  vases,  275, 
276,  309. 

Coniana,  25. 

Constantine,  177. 

Constantinople,  177,  210. 

Con/e,  27,  30,  158,  215,  221, 
282,  285,  351. 

Oi//<j,  on  coins  of  Corinth, 
327- 

Corey ra,  234. 

Core(r'ersephone),  142,  151, 
163,  173,  204,  247,  250, 
25',  33°- 

Core,  daughter  of  P.utadcs, 
105. 

Corfu,  21. 

Corinth,  Cor'nthian,  21,  29, 
42,  43,  48,  58,  8a,  120, 
126,  127,  219,  226,  250, 
255,  264,  288,  310,  323. 
324,  356  ;  order  in  archi- 
tecture, 58  ;  sculptors, 
126  ;  style,  vases  of, 
285  ff. 

Corinl/ios,  personification 
of  Corinth,  356. 

Corona,  46. 

Corone,  59 

Corfplas  if,  201,   239. 

CVr/ttt  iHKriptioniim  At- 
ticarum  (see  under  In- 
scription*). 


Corsini  cup,  372. 

Cos,   JOI. 

Cflsmetfs  (<to<j^i)Ti;?)  of  the 
F.phebi,  238. 

Crater    (icj>aT>)p),    -:(,j,    31.;, 

Creithonius,  365. 
CKK.SII.AS,     sculptor,     15;  ; 

Aina/on  by,  i</>. 
Crete,  Cretan,  15,  26;  bull, 

17^  ;  sculptors,  108,  ui. 
Crimea,  31 1,   '/>5. 
Crinagoras,  340. 
CKITII  s,  sculptor,   138. 
Cncsus,  23  :  crater  of,  32. 
Cronius,  Mount,  177. 
Croton,  333. 
Cuma;,    Vases    from,    307, 

311. 
"Curium      Treasure,"     iS, 

337- 

Curtius,  E.,  2,  103,  178. 

Curvature  of  I. lies,  in  archi- 
tecture, 68. 

Cy  at  hits  271. 

Cycladcs,  5,  15,  244,  280, 
282. 

"  Cyclopean  "  walls,  35. 

Cyclopes,  I.ycian,  2(1,  35, 
36- 

Cydonia,  Aristocles  of,  121, 
137;  Cresilas  of,  190. 

Cydonia,  Epithet  of  Athena 
in  Elis,  310. 

Cylinders,  P.abylonian,  337. 

Cylix  («OXif),  270,  275,  286. 

Cyma,  47,  53  ;  with  leaf- 
bud  ornament,  59. 

Cynthus,  Mount,  42. 

Cyprus,  Cypriote,  12,  14, 
17,  21,  24,  26,  48,  201, 
281.  288,  337,  356.  364. 

Cypselidx,  31. 

Cjpseltis,  Chest  of,  29,  30, 
264,  290. 

Cyrenaica,  244,  292,  298. 

Cyrus,  207. 

Cythera,  15. 

Cyzicus,  103. 


I). 

Dactyli,  26,  363. 

Ditdalus,     I);tdalid.-c,     19, 

20,  104,  133. 
DAi'ri't  s,  sculptor,  211. 
DAI-HNIS,  architect,  57. 
Darius,  311. 
Decastyle,  64. 
Deidameia,  184. 
Dcinagures,  345 


Del'  s,    Dell. in,   42,    72,  i&j, 

21  ;. 
Delphi,    Delphic.    41,    107, 

i.-i,  126,  154,  3JI  ;  tripo.1, 

152. 

Demaratus,  2^4,  288. 
Demeter  (Ceres),   14?,   1-2, 

|C,3.       l67,       I7!,       2.  .4.       I4,t, 

250,  32' >,  330,  369  ,  temple 

of,  at  I'.'csium,  49. 
DKMKTKII  s     (i)    sculptor, 

191  ;   Ucmetrius  ;_•),  m<,. 
/Ifir^'S  (A./fii.<)  of    Allieu-., 

'-'-'.<• 

Demosthenes,  87. 
Dermys,  127. 
Designs  on  coins,  328. 
Destiny  (<ojp  ,  29. 
I  >exileos,  22*>. 
I  )iadochi,  260,  371. 
Diiiihiinenns,    of   Polyclei- 

tus,  190. 
Diastyle,  64. 
Dido,  41. 
Didynii,       Didjm;ean     (s  e 

Hranchida:),     55,    58,  <»->, 

^2.    7°.    73.    So,   1 16,    134, 

?4t>. 
Diodortis  Siculus,   104,  133, 

204. 

Diogeires  I»-»ertius,  332. 
Dionysiac      festivals.       94  ; 

scenes,  271,  299,  308,  312  ; 

theatre  at  Athens,  SS,   91, 

213- 
Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus, 

.'47,  '73- 
Dionysus,  90  ;   Eleuthereus, 

92.    96,    202;     Morychus, 

no;  infant  with  }Ienne--, 

group  by  Praxiteles,  204  ; 

206,     228,    272,    292,    299, 

307,  308. 
Dioscuri,  102. 

I  >ioscurides(.s^>  I  )iscurides\ 
DiMKxrs,     sculptor,     108, 

114,  120,  121. 
Dipteral,  63. 
I  'ipylon  vases,  284. 
Dirce,  219. 
Discobolus,  135;  of  Myron, 

148  ;  of  Naucydes,  193. 
Disct'KiDK.s,    gem  -  cutter, 

333,  33'J- 

DIM. i. is,  ^cniptor,  126. 
Dodecast)  le,  64. 
Dodona,   345,  347,  352,  354. 
Dodwell,  35  ;  Dodwell  vase, 

228. 

Donaldson,  76,  326. 
DONTAS.  sculptor,  109. 
I  )oric  order  of  architecture, 

43,  "A 


GENERAL    INDEX. 


377 


Doric,  Dorian,  Dorians,  2, 
16,  23,  32,  27,  1 18  ;  in- 
vasion of  Peloponnesus, 
27  ;  myths,  120  ;  schools, 

120,    127,    144- 

DOR  YCLEI  DAS,  sculptor,  109. 
Doryphorus,  of  Polycleitus, 

192,    2IO. 

Doxato,  229. 

Dresden,  144. 

"  Dying  Gladiator,"  so- 
called,  214. 

Du  Hois,  177. 

Dumont,  i,  6,  86,  97,  128, 
J34>  233t  238,  261,  264, 
280,  322,  354,  360. 

DTKIS,  vase-painter,  304. 

E. 

Eagle  and  Hare  on  coins  of 

Agrigentum,  329. 
Ebers,  25. 
Echinus,  45. 
Eckhel,  325,  340. 
Edde,  48. 
Egg-and-dart  moulding,  53, 

54-  57,  58. 
Egypt,  Egyptian,  i,  10,  i=, 

16,    17,    19,    64,   82,    233, 

354- 

Electra,  112,  242. 
Eleusi-^,  82,  92,  151  ;  marble 

from,   174;  goddesses  of, 

311. 

Eleutherae,  148. 
Elgin,  Lord,  162. 
Elis,   Elean,    120,   121,    127, 

155,  160,  170,  196,  310. 
Elysium,  228. 
Empedocles,  332. 
Enchytristria        (tyxvrpicr- 

rpia),  242. 

ENDCEUS,     sculptor,     no, 

'33,  134- 

Enneacrunus,  97. 
Entablature,  45. 
JZntasis,  43. 
Epeius,  1 1 8. 
Ephebus,      Ephebic,     18^, 

236,  298,  362. 
Ephesus,   Ephesian,  32,  50, 

55,  57,  58,  74.  80,  190,  196, 

244,  257,  327-  329,  34°- 
Epicliysis  (tmxixTis),  270. 
El'iCTETL'S,    vase  -  paint  r, 

302. 

Epicuru?,  Bust  of,  346. 
Epidamnus,  123. 
Epidaurus,  88. 
Epimetheus,  167. 
Episema,  291. 
EHSTE.MON,  scu'pior,  134. 


EJ>itap/i!a,on  white  lecythi, 
320. 

En TYNCHANCS,  gem  -  cut- 
ter, 339. 

Erechtheum,  57,   70,  77,  79, 

'54,  174- 

Erechtheus,  65,  174. 
EKGOTIMUS,     potter,     264, 

277- 

Erichthomus,  156. 
Eros,     102,     196,    202,    204, 

210,    257,    258,    307,    34--, 

358,  37'-. 

Erymanthian  Hoar,  180. 
Erytlira,  Athena  for,    134  ; 

Heracles  of,  19. 
Etruria,  Etruscan.  262,  266, 

285,  288,  355,  358,  366. 
"  Etruscan  "  vases,  262. 
Etyiiiolngicum  Magnum, 

Enainetus  (:)  archon,  97  ; 
(2)  EU.-ENETIS,  coin-en- 
graver, 331. 

Eubcea,  42. 

EUCHEIR,  21,  64. 

EUCHERUS,    vase  -  painter, 

293. 

Euergus,  108. 
KfGKAMMUS,  264. 
Eumelus,  29. 
Eumenes  II.,  213,  215. 
EuoiH'S,  gem-nitter,  339. 
ELTHPANOK,  sculptor,  208. 
EiTHKONius,  vase-painter, 

302. 

Eupolis,  Statue  of,  94. 
Euripides,  36,  46. 
Eurus,  311. 
Euryalus,  311. 
Eurytion,  184. 
Eusebijs,  30. 
Eustyle,  64. 
EUTELIUAS,  sculptor,  123. 

EUTHYCKATES,  sculptor, 
211. 

Euthymenes,  archon,  82. 
EUTYCHIDES,  sculptor,  211. 
EuTYCHi'S,  gem-cutter,  339. 
EXEKIAS,  vase-painter,  204. 

F. 

Fabius  Verrucosus,  209. 

"Farewell"  on  mortuary 
stela;,  226. 

Farnese  Bull,  218  ;  Her- 
cules, aog. 

Farnese  Villa  (see  Rome). 

Fates,  163. 

Faun,  of  Praxitelec,  202  ; 
in  bronze,  351. 

Fellows,  141,  207. 


Fergusson,  40.  73,  198. 
Figurines,     Terra-cottn, 

239ff.,  243;  bronze,  345. 
Fillet  (see    7'ifnia)  ;   fillet- 

and-bead  (sre  Beading). 
Florence,  igj,  205,  209,  277, 

293,  336- 
Foucart,  218. 
Fouque,  i.  5. 
Francois  Vase,  277,  293. 
Friederichs,  343. 
Friexe,  45,    5;,  66,  152,  168, 

i£3. 

Friihiier,  20-. 
"  Funeral       banquet,"     on 

stela;,  226. 
Furtwangler,  262,  263,  282, 

343,  35'- 

G. 

Gabii,  210. 
Galatia,  273,   214. 
GAMEDI.S,         vase-painter, 

265. 
Ganymede,  197  ;  on  mirror, 

358. 
Gardner,    Percy,    114,    166, 

325- 

Gasterocheires,  35. 
Gate  of  Lions,  at  Mycenae, 

fi,  36. 

Gazette  a;  chdologique,  1 01 . 
Gelo,  128. 
Gems,  335  ft. 
Gem'aster,  352. 
Genoa,  Villa  Negro  at,  19. 
"  Geometrical "  decoration, 

Vases  with,  282. 
Gerhard,    14,   25,   246,  261, 

263. 

Geryon,  180. 
Glgantomachia        ("Wars 

with   Giants"),  167,   213, 

216. 

Gela,  328. 

Gilding  on  vases,  309. 
Giovan-Battista  della  Porta, 

219. 

Girard,  72,  141. 
GITIAUES,  sculptor,  120. 
"  Gladiator,    Dying,"     so- 
called,  214. 

GLAUCIAS,  sculptor,  128. 
GLYCON,  sculptor,  220,  226. 
Glyptics,  335  ff. 
Gnossus,  50. 
Golgos,  17,  48,  54. 
Gonzaga  cameo,  341. 
Gorgon,  Gorgon's  head,  78, 

112,  156,  242,  327. 
Graces  (see  Cliantes). 
Gra;cia,  Magna,  77,  321. 


37' 


C. R K !•: K    A RC II . KOLOC. Y. 


Gr:cco-Oricntal    period     of 

Heracles  -0  <"<//«/«•./):  - 

[ 

art.  27  IT. 

copy  of,  ?4[)  '.  "f  Krythra-, 

"  Gncco-Pelasgic  "    period. 

1,1  ;'of    McssellC,    19. 

lalysus,   12. 

ill'.,  35. 

H'-racleiim,  152. 

IITINCS.  architect,   49,   56, 

(irxco-Syrian  bronzes,  351. 

Herculaneum.  34  ;,  3(6,  347. 

6o,r.8,  i38. 

Grauicus,  21,). 

Hercules,  Karnese,  209. 

Ida.  Dactyli  of  Mount,  26. 

Granulation,   on   jewellery. 

Hermes,    8'i,    I  ;''>,    140,    142, 

Idalinm,    17  ;    patera   from, 

3"7- 

228,     248,     324.     3i";     at 

356. 

Gi-illin.  22. 

Messeiie,  in  ;  Crit>/>horus,       /</.£./  (s,;-  Homer). 

C.ueu-lu-Kalah,  258. 

147,  247;   Psyi!iof>0iiil>us,    ;    Ilissus,  166,  173. 

Guillaume,  14,  19;,  34',. 

228  ;     of      Praxiteles,    at        Ilium,  4. 

C,ntt<r.  43. 

Olympia,  204. 

Imhoof-Hlumer,  325,  334. 

liyn,rcenni,  87. 

Hermitage   Museum   at   St.        Incuse  coins, 

Gythion,  16. 

Petersburg,  262,  311,  365, 

Incuse  square,  32f>. 

368,  369,  372. 

Inscriptions    (sff  also   Sig- 

HI.K.MIH.KNKS  (i)  architect, 

nut  n  >;:•:],      on     vases     of 

. 

58,   63  ;  (2)    vase-painter, 

Corinthian  style,  288;  on 

Hades,  256. 

296. 

vases,    276.         I.V.v    also 

Hadrian,    n,    89,    99,    103, 

H  erodes  At  ticus,  97,  99. 

Greek  Index,  «<///"«.) 

144  ;  stoa  of,  85. 

Herodotus,  23,  354. 

Inscriptionunt  A  tticnnitit, 

Halicarnassus,   So,  107. 

H  KKOi'Hll.l'S,      gem-cutter. 

Corpus,    72,     77,    79,    92, 

Hallstadt,  n. 

3  ;y. 

'33.  '74- 

Haltercs  (iArqpes),  3"-'. 

Herostralus,  =;6. 

Intaglio,  336. 

Hansen,  176. 

Horse,  166,  167. 

lolaus,  323. 

Harmodius,    i  ^8. 

Hesperidaj,   iHo. 

Ionia,  Ionian,   2,   21,  29,  50. 

Harpagus,  207. 

He\i/ey,     14,     18,     142,    229, 

54,    118,    119,   207;  school 

Harpy,  Harpies,  141,  228. 

243,    250,   259. 

in  Maceilon,  14-;. 

''  Harpy  Mouuinent,"  141. 

Hcxastyle,  64. 

Ionic  order  of  architecture, 

Hanser,  40. 

llevdemann,  2(">2. 

So,    Ii;6. 

Haussoullier.  1  1. 

Hicks,  182,  226. 

Iris,  IMJ. 

Hebrus,  i  So. 

Ilicromnenwn,  92. 

Kis,  232. 

Hector,  289. 

Ilierophaiit,  92. 

Islands    of  .Kgean.    13,   15, 

Hegcso,  225. 

Hilinns,  265. 

etc. 

HI-:<;IAS       (Hegesias),     (i) 

initiation  (inanor),  254. 

"  Island  stones,"  337. 

sculptor,    138;    (2)    vase- 

Ilimeros,  196. 

I  S(K;ONI"S,  sculptor,  213,216. 

painter,  265. 

I  Iipp:irchus,  138. 

halo-Greek  bronzes,  351. 

HKC.YI.IS,  sculptor,  109. 

Hiri'iais,  271. 

Italy,  35,  263,  298,  364. 

Helhifc.  27,  364. 

Hipiiodameia,  182.                         lulis  in  Ceos,  243,  318. 

Helios-Hyperion,  163. 

Hippodrome,   98  ;    of  Con- 

Hellenistic art,  212  IT.,   245, 

stantinople,  210. 

i 

261,  300,  343. 

Hirschfeld,  25,  178,  282. 

J- 

Hephaestus,  28. 

HlscilYLl  s,       vase-painter, 

Jahn,  O.,26i,  262,  263,  309. 

Heia,     108,     141,    168,  189, 

302. 

jebb,  R.  C.,  I. 

'-•45,     33'  I       *'<•"'.      i°"  I 

Hissarlik,  i  ff.,  3,  6.  12. 

jewellery,  363  tT. 

Heraum  at  Argos,    189  ; 

Hittites,  3;  "Hittite"art,24. 

Judxa,  41. 

HcraMim   at  Olympia,  48, 

Hittorf,  42.  76. 

177,     204  ;      Hencum    at 

llvlnnis  (oA^os),  271. 

K. 

Samos,  31,  56. 

Homer,    Homeric,   4,  5,  27. 

Heracleia,  201. 

28,  29,    130,  160,  270,  289, 

(Sec  also  under  C.) 

Heracleida;,    Return  of  the, 

3f\3,  3"4- 

Kachcl,  40. 

12. 

Homolle,  72,  107,  112. 

Kalaba,  24. 

HKKACI.KIUAS,  gem  -cutter, 

Honeysuckle  ornament  (see 

Karabel,  24. 

339- 

Palmette>. 

Karnak,  10,  25,  47. 

Heracles,  112,  117,  129,  130, 

Houses,  Private,  87. 

Kekuld,  176,  243. 

152,    163,    173,    178,    209, 

Humann,  214,  215. 

Kertch,  166,  311,  365. 

216,    233,    257,    292,    296, 

Hyeiria    (v&pia),    269,   296, 

Kheta  (Hittites),  3,  25. 

323,      333   I     alexicacus. 

308. 

Khorsabail,  28,  54. 

124  ;    archaistic  figure  on 

Hygicia,   114,  168  (Gortys), 

King,  C.  W.,335. 

pla<|iiefrom  Dodona,  126  ; 

196,  232. 

Klaft,  17. 

bronze  statuette,   351  ;  of 

HVI.I.CS,  gem-cutter,  339. 

Klein,  265,  302. 

Oppermann        collection, 

Hypajthral,  73. 

Knights  of  St.  John,  197 

349  ;  with  Apollo,  bronze 

Hyperion,   Helios    163. 

Kolias,  Cape,  296. 

piaiiue,  352  ;    by  Onatas, 

Hypsas.   (32. 

Konigsmarck,  162. 

GENERAL    INDEX. 


379 


Koyunjik,  2T,  54. 

Ludovisi,  Villa  (see  Rome). 

Kramer,  263. 

Luynes,  Due  de,  156,  275. 

Kranse,  335. 

Lycaeum,  Mount,  330. 

Kugler,  40. 

Lycia,   Lycian,    10,    26,  35, 

141,  207. 

j 

Lycurgus,  of  Athens,  65,  89, 

99,  176,  206. 

Laborde,  161. 

Lydia,  4,  13,  24,  117. 

Lacedaemonian  (sf>    Doric, 

Lydo-Phryglai)  art.  24. 

Sparta,   etc.),   86;    sculp- 

Lynceus and  Pollux,  bronze 

tors,  109. 

plaque,  352. 

Laconia,  120. 

Lyons  Museum,  358. 

Lange,  128. 

Lysanias,  226. 

Langlois,  258. 

Lyseas,  224. 

Lansdowne  collection,  Ama- 

Lysiades, 97. 

zon  of,  190. 

Lysias,  147. 

Laocoon,  218,  259. 

Lysicrates,     96  ;      choragic 

Laomedon,  130. 

monument  of,  60,  96,  206, 

Lapitha;,   65,  152,  167,  184, 

T  2"'     , 

271,  293. 

Lysimachus,  4,  334. 

Larnaka,  18,  364. 

LvsiPi'us,     sculptor,      208, 

Lasteyrie,  De,  363. 

258,  343.  354- 

Lateran,  148. 

LvsrsTRATUS,  sculptor,  2oS. 

Latium,  5. 

I.ysitheides,  96. 

Lau,  266. 

Layard,  14,  21. 

M. 

Leaena,  138. 

Macedon,  2,  142,  329,  333. 

Le  Ras-Foucart,  144. 

Macrobius,  160. 

Lebegue,  42. 

Majnad,  196,  351,  358. 

Lechevalier,  4. 

Magna  Gra.'cia,  321,  330. 

Lecythus,  272,  276,  298,  307  ; 

Magnesia,    Magnesian,    32, 

white  lecythi  from  Athens, 

58,  63,  109. 

312. 

Mahomet  II.,  161. 

Leitcn,  101. 

RTanteinm,  73. 

"  Leka  "  (Lycians),  10. 

Mantineia,  41. 

Lemnus,  173. 

Maratlion,  86,  154,  21  }. 

Lenormant,    Ch.,    157,   261, 

"  Marathonian  soldier,"  136. 

263,  266. 

"  Marble  Faun,"  204. 

Lenormant,  Fr.,  i,  325,  326. 

Mardonius,  72. 

Leochares.  197. 

Mariette,  335. 

Lepsius,  14. 

Mars,  208. 

Lernrean  Hydra,  179. 
Lesche  at  Delphi,  301. 

Marsyas,  148. 
Martha,  72,  243. 

Lessing,  218. 

Mausoleum,  57,  195.  197. 

l.etroniie,  266,  338. 

Mausolus,  195,  197. 

Libon,  177. 

Media,  4. 

Libyan?,  3. 

Medusa  (see  Gorgon). 

Lighting  of  hypaeihral  tem- 

MKGACLES,    vase  -  painter, 

ples,  73. 

265. 

Lindus,  218. 

Megara,  196,  310,  312.  364. 

Linus,  304. 

MELAS,  sculptor,  etc.,    31, 

Locrian      type     of     black- 

107. 

figured  vases,  299. 

Meleager,  341. 

Locris,  244. 

Melite  in  Athens,  124,  152. 

Longperier,     De,     14,    286, 

Melos  (see  Milo). 

346. 

1    Men,  26. 

Loschcke,  282.  _ 

Menander,    368  ;  statues  of, 

Louvre  (tee  Paris). 

94,  206. 

Loves  (see  Eros). 

Mende,  180. 

Lowy,  2OT. 

Menidhi,  12. 

Liibke,  40. 

MENTOR,  toreutician,  371. 

Lucian,   140,    147,    173,  192, 

Merenptah,  10. 

195.  201. 

Merte-e,  288. 

Mesopotamia  (sec  also  As- 
syria, Babylon),  13. 

Messene,  19,  99,  121,  181. 

Messina,  328. 

METAGKXES,  architect,  50. 

Metapontum,  41,  43,  331 
333- 

Metope,  46,  152,  166,  180. 

Metroon,  117. 

MICCIADES,  sculptor,  51, 
107. 

Michaelis,  65,  161,  167,  372. 

MICON,    painter,    86,    302, 

333- 

Middleton,  35. 

Milchhiifer,  i,  337. 

Miletus,  57,  60,  122,  207. 

Miller,  142. 

Millingen,  263. 

Milo,  30.  240,  280;  vases  of, 
284  ;  Venus  of,  284. 

Miltiades,  87. 

Minotaur,  Theseus  and, 
small  bronze,  351. 

Mionnet,  325. 

Mirrors,  354  ff. 

Mitchell,   L.  M.,  101. 

Mitylene,  370. 

MNESICLES,  architect,  49, 
82,  84. 

Monopteral,  63. 

Monte  Cavallo,  Hor-es  of, 
156. 

Montorioli,  Giovanni,  218. 

Morea,  59  ;  French  expe- 
dition to,  177. 

Morosini,  162. 

Mourning  for  the  dead,  on 
white  lecythi,  318:  on 
terra-cotta  plaques, 322. 

Miiller,  K.  O.,  10,  S3,  101. 

Munich,   128,  262,  301,  324 

369.  372- 
Murr,  De,  335. 
Murray,  A.  S.,  101,  106. 
Musaeus,  304. 
Museography,  360. 
Mutules,  47. 
Mycenae,  3,  6fT.,  12,36,282 

337,  363- 

MYCON,  gem-cutter,  339. 
Mylonas,  354. 
Myrina,  257. 
MYR.MICIDES,      toreutician 

37°- 

MVROI.OGI'ES,   317. 

MYRON  (i)  sculp-or,  124 
146,  147;  (2)  tyrant  o 
Sicyon,  41. 

Myrrhine,  226,  228. 

Myrtilns,   182,  337. 

MYS,  toreutician,  154. 

Mysia,  213. 


380 


C.KKKK     ARCFI.T.Ol.OdV. 


N.                          '    OJfon,  8S,  97. 

Pan,  233,  330. 

Nacrasa,  216.                                   (>.i\afy  dec  Homer). 

Panathcn.uc    amphora,  291, 

Naiads,  229.                                    Oecles,  iy>. 

297  :     festival,     66,     168  ; 

A/HI'S  (rub«,  I'fuiv),  6?. 

M.ulium  at  Athens,  99 

Naples    Museum,    n3,    144,        '  Kdlpus,  294. 

Pandeimis,    Aphrodite,     £6, 

192,    20,;,    -.-14,    219,    202.       1  Knochoe  tOJwxoij),  afi^. 

'  SS 

3-4.  3»7.  33".  34V. 

Pandora,  156,  167. 

Nanpactus,  182.                               Ogee,  52. 
Nauplia,  12.                                Olive  Uranch  on  Atuc  cou.s, 

Pandrosus,  05,  165,  1  66,  168. 
Panofka,  263,  266. 

Na.xos,    Naxian,    311,    34=;; 

Pantheon,    8;  ;  of  Agrippa, 

Noap-.lis  ••'*;/'                              <  tlympia,   Olympic,    20,    51. 

61. 

P  \-.  TI  \s  si  nipt..  r.  i.-?. 

NKAKCHI  s,       vase  painter,            4^.    7".   9'1.    '''.    '-''•  '  '  >• 

P.miii  ap.i-iini,    (f.^. 

•.-.,4,  20'..                                             '-'7«    '-»7,    '""•     1?7'    i;i". 

I'.lpho,,    ,0.    201. 

Nej.ro,  Villa,  at  C.enoa,  IVS.    i    ,    lSl'.  2>'->'  '-'4-.  3V.  343- 

Paris:  Hibliot!u-<|iie  Nation- 

Nhist  s,  gem-cutter,   339.            Olympeum  at  Athens,  no. 

ale,  191.  342  ;  Cabinet  des 

Neme.1,   42;   Nemeau    lion.       Olympian  gods,  216. 

Mi-dailies,   262,    292.  336, 

178.                                              Olympic  games,  331. 

339,  34*  i  Louvre,  17,  104, 

Nemesis,  737. 

Olympus,    Mount,  163,  191, 

114,      115,      117,      122,      141, 

Neoptolemus,  296. 
Nereids,  207,  310,  360,. 

201, 

ONATAS,  sculptor,  128,  248, 

142,    144,    166,    178,    199, 

203,      2OO,      207,      210,     214, 

Nereus,  296. 

349- 

242,     243,      250.     257,      258, 

NKMOTES,  sculptor,  138. 

ONKSI  s,  gem-cutter,  339. 

259,    262,    286,     288,    2<_>4, 

Nestor,  fatherof  Apollonius, 
220. 

Oppermann  collection,  348. 

29^.     303,    304,    3-'2,    .'45, 
346,  364,  366,  368. 

Newton,  C.  T.,  So,  197,  366. 
NlCANUKl'S,       gem-cutler, 

•3  }Q. 

<  Ipportunity  (itaipds),  -KJJ. 
Opus,  Khexibius  of,  in. 
OPUS  PHI  I  U.K.,  156. 

I'ariuni,  202. 
Paros,  Parian,  104,  109,  174, 
195  ;  sculptors,  95. 

»TJ-"                                                        , 

NKKKATTS,  sculptor,  213. 

Orchestra,  in  theatre,  89. 

PAKKHASU'S,    painter,  2^1, 

N  ICet  >S    334. 

Orchomenus,  38,  102,  222. 

304. 

Nicias,  archon,  85. 

Orders  uf  architecture.  40  If. 

Parthenon  at  Athens,  earlier. 

N  icopol,  372. 

Oresles    112,  2i'i,  242. 

i  io,  548  ;  of  Pericles,  4), 

^* 
N  ICOSTHK.NKS,  vase-painter. 

265,  294,  302. 

(Jrithyia,  3^1. 
Ortygia,  49. 

6=,.    6(>,    68,    72,     82.    89,     I52, 

153,  176,    188,    198  ;  fric/e 

Night,  figure   in  Parthenon 
pediment,  162  ;  statue  by 

Osins,  233. 
Otricoh,  Xcus  of,  160. 

ot,     168  ;    inventories    of, 
7-'  ;  marbles,  161. 

Rhu_-cus,  106.                           :    I'verheck,  K.I,  i;3,  205. 

PASIAS,  vase-painter,  265. 

Nike,     Nik;c   (Nt'icij),     156, 
163,    166,    176.    184,    216, 
351  j  as  acroterium,  180  ; 

Ovolo    (i<v   Kgg-  and  -dart 
Moulding). 
Owl,  on  Athenian  coins,  328. 

Pasicles,  ,97. 
Patara,  S3. 
i'aU-ra,  from  Amathus,  364; 

Nike    Apteros,    140,    153, 
176;    of  Achermus,    107  ; 

Oxybaphon,  267. 

from  Idalium,  356. 
Patroclus,     130,      293,     302, 

of    Px-onius,    181  ;    from 

]>_ 

364. 

Samothrace,  19^. 

Paul  III.  (Farnese),  219. 

Nunrud,  21,  22. 

Paccard,  68,  168. 

Pausanias,  19,  29,  41,84,  86, 

Nineveh    irf    21.  22.  2s.  28. 

P.i-.oNil's,   sculptor,  57,  155, 

99,  103,  104.  i  io,  12*),  156, 

'So,  182. 

159,  162.  184,  248,  358. 

"  Niobe"  of  Mount  Sipylus,       P.estum,  42,  49,  ?8- 
24                                                        P;etus,  Arna  and,     214. 

Payne-  Knight   bronze,  122, 
124. 

NiobicX   205.                                  ,P,a!nt?d  vases.  z6'  tT- 

Pediment,  47,  162,  180. 

Nointe],  I)e,  162.                             ,a,"lt."1«'  ''*"' 
Nola,  Vases  from,  304.               Palatine,  zo  ,. 

Pegasus,  327, 
Peiraeus,  240  ;  marble  of,  64. 

Numismatics,  3250". 
.\'yniplu-iit>;a,  308. 
Nymphs,  142,  233. 

ralestrma  howl,  12. 
I'alladia,  348. 
Pallas,  The  I.enormant,  158. 
Palmette,     palm  leaf     orna 

Peirithoiis,  152,  184. 
Peisistratida,-,  i  jS. 
Peisistratus,     78,    no,    132, 
'44,  327- 

ment    (hont-ysuckle),     51, 

Pelasgic,  2,  3,  35. 

O. 

54,  55,  78,  81,  222,  370. 

"  Pelasgjc  "  ornamentation, 

Obverse  of  coins,  326. 

PAMI-II.I  i  s        |  Panpluuus), 

of  bronze,  284. 

Ocha,  42. 

vase-painter,  304. 

Peleus,  242,  ?93,  296,  309. 

Octastyle,  64. 

PAMI-IIII.CS,      gem  -cutter, 

I'elite    (ireAiicj/),     270,     308, 

Octavius,  Cn.,  6  1 

339- 

309. 

GENERAL    INDEX. 


Pelichus.  195. 
Peloponnesus,     10,     13,    15, 

108,    120,    127,    177,  244  ; 

Dorian    invasion    of,    27  ; 

schools  of,  301,  330  ;  Pelo- 

ponnesian   War,  154,  174, 

256. 

Pelops,  182,  310. 
Pembroke  collection,  147. 
Pennetho:ne,  68. 
Penrose,  40,  68. 
Pentacomahtra:     of     Syra- 

cuse, 331. 

People  (Arises),  233. 
Peplus,  167. 
Pergamum,  Pergamene,i96, 

213,   244,    257,   259,  351  ; 

marbles  from,  215. 


Phrygo-Pelasgic.  2. 


Priene,  57,  So,  82. 


of  Praxiteles,  202. 
Pericles,  56,  82,  97,  153,  158, 

1  60. 

Perinthus,  236. 
Peripteral,  63. 
Perrot,  4,  14,  24. 
Perseus,  61,  112,  242. 
Persian,   Persians,    23  ;  Ar- 

temis,    30,    365  ;     Wars, 

250,  300,  348,  349. 
Pervanoglu,  221. 
/'(/asns,  254. 
Petersen    it>i. 
Peiit-kadel,  35. 
PH.*:DRIS,     architect,     89, 

90. 
Phaleric,    type     of    black- 

figured  bases,  298. 
Phalerum,  2<,6. 
PHANIS,  sculptor,  211. 
Pharaoh,  6. 
Pharsalus,  142. 
PHKIUIAS,  sculptor,  65,  70, 

120,    124,    140,    146,    148, 

153,    161,    170,    173,    177, 

180,    182,    188,    ibg,    331, 

34.Q.  343- 

Pheidon,  326. 

PHEI.IX,  gem-cutter,  339. 

Pheneus,  329. 

Ph-nu,  333. 

PHIU1.E.  OPUS,  156. 

Phigalia,  56,  no,  188,  198. 

Philetajrus,   213. 

Philip  Arrhidaeus,  333. 

Philostratus,  82,  99. 

Phocians,  126. 

Phoenicia,  PhcxMiician,  5,  8, 
ii  ;  art,  14,  15,  19,  24, 
25,  43,  48,  54  ;  vases  ot 
Cyclades,  280,  288,  363, 
364. 

PHRADMON,  sculptor,  190. 

Phrygia,  2,  24,  117. 


Phryne,  200,  202. 

Prince  Regent  of  England, 

PhthiotU,   2. 

1  88. 

PHYROMACHUS,       sculptor, 

Prflchoiis,  270,  308. 

213. 

PROCLES    (i)   vase-painter, 

Piali,  195. 

265;  (2  (coin  engraver,  331. 

Pinacotheca,    on   Ai  ropolis 

rronaos,  69. 

of  Athens,  83. 

Propylasa,     82;     Propyla_-a, 

Pindar,  2,2. 

at   Athens,    earlier,    no; 

Pisa,  182. 

Periclean,    49,    56,  68,  82, 

Place,  14. 

83,  153,  176. 

Plaques,     Bronze,    351  ff.  ; 

Proscenium,  90. 

stamped,    240  ff.  ;    terra- 

Prostyle, 63. 

cotta,  322  ff. 

PROTARCHUS,     gem-cutter, 

Plautilla,  201. 

339- 

Pliny,    105,    147,    156,    197, 

PROTOGENES,  painter,  261. 

200,    205,    208,    210,    264, 

Protonoe,  Stele  of,  225. 

336,   37i- 

Proxenia(irpoferia],  Marbles 

Plutarch,  97,  153. 

relating  to,  235. 

Pluto,  23}. 

Psammetichus  I.,  19,  20. 

Ptrci/e,  stoa,  86. 

Pseudo-dipteral,  63, 

Polemon,  3^8. 

1'shcnt,  17. 

Political    life,    Marbles   re- 

PSIAX, vase-painter,  265. 

lating  to,  233. 

Psyche,  258,  340. 

Pollio,  219. 

Pteria,  24,  48,  54. 

Pollux  and  Lynceu«,  bronze 

Pteroma,  63. 

plaque,  352. 

Ptolemy    Soter,    199  ;  Phil- 

Polits,  24,  232,  246. 

adelphus,    212,  338,    341, 

Polychromy,     in     architec- 

371 ;  Ptplemys,  334,  371  ; 

ture.  67,  76  ;  in  vases,  276. 

gymnasium    of   Ptolemy, 

PoLYCLEiTi's,   sculptor      i) 

86. 

the   e'der,   120,    124,    189, 

PTOLICHUS,  sculptor,  128. 

211,    33'.    343  5     (2)     the 

Puchstein,  293. 

younger,   193. 

Hullan,  198.  ' 

Polycrates,     348  ;    ring    of, 

Pycnostyle,  64. 

338. 

PYRGOTELES,     gem-cutter, 

Polygnotus,    86,    261,    301, 

335,  338. 

3°4»  333- 

Pyrrhus,  334. 

'  Polygonal  system,  Third," 

PYTHAGORAS  of  Rhegium, 

36- 

sculptor,  150. 

Polyphemus,  293. 

Pythia,  Didymi,  73. 

Pompeii,  219,  261,  343,  346, 

Pythian  games,  292. 

349i  351- 

PvTiurs,  57,  197. 

Pompeiopolis,  85. 

Pyxis  (Trull's),  273,  288. 

Portico  (see  Stoti). 

Portraits,  of  athletes,    in; 

Q. 

on  coins,  334. 
Poseidippus   200. 
Poseidon,  65,  162,  164,  166, 
168,    311,    323,    324,    346  ; 

Cl      ti     i                               6 

(Juatremere  de  Quincy,  156. 
Quintilian,  192. 

Hippius,  41  ;  Pythalmius, 

j^ 

92  ;    temple    at   Passtum, 

49. 

Ramescs  II.,  3,  25. 

Pothos,  196. 

Ramsay,  25 

Pottier,  257,  312. 

Ravaisson,  208,  226,  228. 

Pourtales  collection,  348. 

Rayet,  80,  101,  135;  Monu- 

Prachov, 128. 

ments  published  by,    193, 

Praxidamas,  111. 

10,  240,  243.  323,  349. 

PRAXITELES,  sculptor,   140, 

Red-figured  vases,  279,  299  ; 

161,    176,'  195,    200,    206, 

severe  style,  300  ;    second 

258. 

epoch,      304  ;      perfected 

Priam,  289,  304  ;  "  Treasure 

Attic    style,     305  :     with 

of  Priam,"  304. 

gilding,  309. 

Rcgilla,  07. 

SATVNI-MI-S,      gem  -  cutler,       Solon  (i)    -527;    (j)  Soi  ON, 

Regnault,  42. 

338.                                                         Kem-cutter,  33^. 

Rcinach,  257. 

SATVHCS,  architect,  11,7. 

S.isaiidra,  147. 

Rekhmara,  0. 

SiiitiVi'ti'HHs,      Apollo,      by       S.ISIAS.  vase-painter,  303 

Rcnan,  14. 

Praxiteles,  202.                             Sosinit  s,  sculptor,  220. 

Return  of  Her.uleid.e,  12. 

Sayce,  A.  II.,  25.                           S]>arta    (.«•<•    also    l.aconia, 

"  Return  of  Spring,"  vase, 

Scarab,  18,    (57.                                   Lacedaemonian),    41,     8r, 

3°5- 

.SYr»r(<r/ci)r/)'j  in  theatre,  89.    \        i<j2,    108,    urj,     112,    12-, 

Reverse  of  coins,  326. 

Schliemanu,  i,  ;,  6.                         127. 

Rhanmus,  103. 

Sch.'ine,  140,  230,  233,  240.          Spata,  3,  11,  12. 

Rharian  pl.iiu,  152. 

Schreiber,  158.                                Sphac'teria,  181. 

Rhegium,  i..),  150,  328. 

Sc.ip.is,  50,  6_i,  195,  500,  2..)5,       Sphairus,  182. 

Rhexibius,  1  1  1. 

207.                                                  Sphinx,  22,  294. 

Rhodes,     Rhodian,    12,    15, 

Sii'tin,  51.                                         Stackelberg,  221. 

26,  30,  213,  218,  244,  246, 

SCVM.IS,   sculptor,   32,   108,       Seni/ni,  83,  98. 

259.    281,    333  ;   sculptors 

114,  120    121.                                 St,  minus,  2'";,   3'>4 

Siy/>hns  (<ricui/>o<),  271. 

Stamped  plaques,  240. 

RlUKl'l'S,   31,  56,   106. 

SCVTHKS,  vase-painter,  2^4.        Stark,  205. 

Rhytim  (jivrov),  274. 

Seasons  (*npoi),  32.                       State,  personified,  255. 

Rochette,  Raoul,  325. 

Segeste,  42. 

SttlC.   Stfllf      ((rT>)Ar|),     221 

Roman  conquest,  212. 

Seis  imcs,  311.                                      on    while     lecythi,     314 

Rome,  60,  107,  155,  190,  2'">4, 

.SVXw  (crijtos),  41.                                headpieces  of  decrees  on 

205,  214  ;  Iforghese,  Villa, 

Selene,  iAj.                                        221  ;     of    Arislion,     136 

208  ;  Capitolme  Museum. 

Seleucida;,    245,     25?,    334,           on  tombs,  221. 

204,     205;     Chtaramonti 

3=;i,  371.                                 '   Stephani,  166,  230,  262. 

Museum,    205  ;    Farncse, 

Seliuus  :   (i)  river-god,  332  ;       Sierope,  i8j. 

Villa,  190  ',   Lateral!    Gre- 

(2)  city,  temple  at,  48,  414  ;       St<'n,sti><i'(ifo<j.),  85  ;  /</v/W 

gorian       Museum,       148, 

metopes  of,  112. 

(Tro.KcA.)),  86. 

366,  368  ;  Ludovisi,  Villa, 

Semper,  14. 

StobiKUS,    368. 

iqo,    214;     Pal.    Massimi 

Senate  (BouA>j)   personified, 

Stone  age,  6. 

alta   Colonnc,  148;   Vati- 

2 j  j. 

Strabo,  i(x>. 

can,      192,      196,      197,      202, 

Senalu-i-consultum  de   I>ac- 

Strack,  88. 

2IO,   214,    220,    368. 

chanalibus   300. 

S  I'  K  ATONIC  Is,  sculptor,  2  I  3. 

Ronchaud,  I)e,  '160. 

Septimius  Severus,  89. 

Strigil  handles,  3'io. 

Russia  IA.Y  Crimea,   Hermi- 

SiiK.\Mi;rs, sculptor,  128. 

Stymphalian  buds,  178,  3  ;o. 

tage,  Kertch),  205. 

Serapis,  232,  233. 

Stymphalus,  87,  330. 

Rnvo,  Vases  from,  321. 

"  Sesostris,"  ^4. 

Snniiim,  62,  82,  £8. 

Seti,   ;. 

Susii,  2  ;. 

S. 

S/tenti,  7. 

SYADKAS,  sculptors,  109. 

Sacred  Way  at  Branchldac, 

Shield,  on   Boeotian    coins, 

Symbols  on  coins,  328. 

117. 

327- 

SVNNOON,      sculptor,      122, 

Saglio,  343,  363. 

Sicilians,  10. 

128. 

St.  Petersburg  (sec  Hermi- 

Sicily,  77,  330,  331,  334. 

Syracuse,    42,    48,    87,    128, 

tagc). 

Sicyou,    108,    120,   121,  126, 

3-8.  33'.  333- 

Sallet,  Von,  114,  330. 

'37,  103,  210,  3  -9  ;   sculp- 

Syslyle, 64. 

SAM-ION,  sculptor,  220. 

tors  of,  209,  243. 

Sal/maun,  27,  365. 

Sidon,  15,  2<i,  364. 

T 

Samos,   S.  inn.  in,    31,   32,  s^. 

Sienna,  2^5. 

1  . 

108,  141,  245,  305  ;   s.  nip- 

Signatures,  on  ioin-,    ;  ;o  ; 

T.i.-narum,  140. 

tors,    iix>,    108;    bronzes, 

on  gems,   ;  in  ;  of-.'  ulptoi-, 

1'ifiiiii   (i)   in   arch'te.  lure, 

343- 

2</>  ;  <in  vases,  -.-65. 

46  ;  (:-)  sasli  on  stel.'L',   313. 

Samolhrace,      118;      Nike 

Silen,  Sileni,  351,  350. 

Talthy  bins,  n3. 

from,  199. 

Silf'hiitin,  293. 

Tanagra,  127,  147,  200,  243, 

San  Gallo,  162. 

Simart,  156. 

-'44.    24",    248,    250,    254, 

Saul1  Agata  di  Goti,  32. 

SIM.MIAS,  >ctilptor,  no. 

236. 

Santorin,    5,    6,   7,    12,    280, 

SIMON,  sculptor,  120. 

Tarenlum,  209,  350  ;  Taren- 

281. 

Sipylus,  Mount,  24. 

lines,    bron/c    at     Delph; 

Sardinians,  10. 

Sirens,  228. 

from,  123. 

Sardis,  32. 

Siris,  l!rou/es  of,  352. 

Tatquiuii,  264. 

Sargoii,  54. 

Skias    (<TKia?l,     at    Sjiarta, 

Tarsus,  25,  244,  257,  258. 

Satyr,    329  ;     bronze    from 

108. 

Tartessus,  32. 

Dodona,  347  ;  bron/e  from 

SMII.IS,  scu!|»tor,  io3,  127. 

TAUKISCCS,  sculptor,  218. 

Pcrgamum,  351. 

Smyrna,  257,  258. 

1'Efl.tL'S,  sculptor,  109. 

GENERAL    INDEX. 


Tegea,  50,  60,  195,  245. 

TEISIAS.  vase-painter,  265. 

Telamon,  130. 

Telchines,  26,  363. 

TELECLES,  31,  106. 

Telephus,  195,  215. 

Telmissus,  88. 

Tf menus  (re/iei'Os),  62. 

Teos,  58. 

Terra-cotta,  figurines,  239, 
243  flf. ;  plaques,  322  ff. 

Tetradrachm,  333. 

1  etrastyle,  64. 

Teucer,  130. 

TEUCRUS,  gem-cutter,  339. 

Thallo,  163. 

THARGELK'.S,  architect,  58, 
60. 

Thasos,  142,  329. 

Theatres,  88  ff. 

Thebes,  122,  173,  196,  333. 

Themistocles,  87. 

THEOCLES,  sculptor,  109. 

Theocritus,  212. 

THEODORUS  (i)  sculptor, 
etc.,  56,  106,  108,  109, 
338  ;  (2)  archon,  156. 

Theodosius,  177. 

Theon,  96. 

THEOI'KOPUS,  sculptor,  128. 

Thera  (see  Santorin). 

Therasia,  5. 

Theseum,  152,  176,  180,  303. 

Theseus,  19,  86,  140,  152, 
159,  163,  184,  292,  293, 
302  ;  and  Minotaur,  351. 

Thespia:,   102,  200,  201,  247. 

Thespis,  94. 

Thessaly,  2,  10. 

Thetis,   166,   242,  293,   296, 

3°9- 

Thisbe,  247,  250. 
Thoricus,  226. 
Thorwaldsen,  128. 
Thothmes  I.,  16;  III.,  6. 
Thrace,  2,  180,  222. 
Thracian  cap,  348. 
Thrasyllus,  96. 
Thyatira,  219. 
Tiber,  265. 
Tiberius,  155. 
TIMAGOKAS,  vase  -  painter, 

205. 
TlMARCHUS,   sculptor,    200, 

206. 

TI.MONIUAS,    vase-  painter, 

264,  288,  324. 
Tiinostratus,  94. 
TiMOTHEi's,  197. 
Tiryns,  i,  36. 
Tityus,  304. 
TLESON,  vase  painter,  264. 


Tlos,  88. 

Toilette     articles,     bronze, 

34'  <T. 

Tombstone  stela;,  222. 
Toreutic    art   (fpya.    t'£tjara 

(tai    <T<J>i>pijAaTa),     28,    31, 

29°.  343.  36j.  37°- 
Tortoise,       on       .-Eginetan 

coins,  327. 
Tortosa,  351. 
Torus,  50. 
Tralies,    58.    60,    213,    259  ; 

school  of  Tralies,  218. 
Treasuries,  at  Olympia,  177; 

at  Mycenae     and   Orcho- 

menus,  38. 

Treu,  178,  185,  204,  312. 
Triglyphs,  46. 
Tripod,  Delphic,  144,  352  ; 

street  of  Tripods,  96. 
Triptolemus,   152,   167,  311, 

322. 

Triton,  117,  296. 
Troilus,  288,  293. 
TROTHONH  s,   architect,  41. 
Troy,  Troad,  3,  4,  27,  in, 

292,    304  ;    Trojans,    130, 

289,  372  ;  Trojan  War,  2, 

167. 

TRYPHON,  gem-cutter,  338. 
Tsarskoe-Selo,  205. 
Turks,  167. 
Tuscany,  262. 
Types,  on  coins,  328. 
Tyrannicides,  Statue  of,  138. 
Tyre,  15.  19. 
Tyrrhenians,      10 ;     pirates 

and    Uionysus,    96,    206, 

299. 


U. 


Uffizi,  203. 
Ulysses,  293, 
Urhchs,  195. 
Ussing,  266. 


Vaison  statue,  190. 

Vase,  Dodwell,  288. 

Vase,  Francois,  277,  293. 

Vases,  Painted,  261  ff. 

Vatican  (see  Rome). 

Velauideza,  136,  322. 

Venice,  214  ;  St.  Mark's, 
70  ;  Venetians,  162. 

Venus  (it'L-  also  Aphrodite) ; 
of  the  Capitol,  2^1  ;  di 
Medici,  202,  220;  de  Milo, 
207  ;  and  Mars.  208. 

Victory  (<ce  Nike). 


Vienna,  cameo,  34  ;  museum, 
_  158,  336. 
V  met,  K.,  40. 
V'iollet  le-IJuc,  42. 
Virgil,  sEnciJ,  41. 
Vitruvius,  42.  46,  50,  58,  76, 

74,  87,  210. 
Vogue,  De,  17. 
Vulci,  263,  294,  305,  366. 


Wagner,  40. 
Waldstein,  150,  161. 
War  of  the  Gods  and  Giants 
(see  GrgaHtoMiachia.). 

Welckcr,  101,  205,  230,  301. 
Westropp,  335. 
Wheeler,  J."  R.,  S3. 
White  colour  in  vase-paint- 

ing. 292,  312. 
Wieseler,  S3,  101. 
Winckelmann,  14,  145,  218, 

263. 
Witte,    De,    166,    261,    263, 

266,    277,    300,    302,    300, 

332.  347.  349,  354- 
Wolf  ou    coins    of  Argos, 


Wood,  J.  T..  56,  74,  197. 
Wright,  W.,  25. 


Z. 

Zeno,  bronze  bust,  346. 

Zethus,  219. 

Zeus,  Laribsa;an,  42  ;  Ne- 
mean,  42  ;  Polieus  of 
Athens,  92,  167,  168,  182, 
215,  216  ;  /Egiochus,  340; 
Dodonrean,  345  ;  statue 
by  Ageladas.  124  ;  by 
1'heidias,  at  Olympia,  70, 
02,  155,  159  ;  temple  nt 
Olympia,  177  ;  Olympian, 
33°,  33'  i  statue  at  T.i- 
rentuiu  by  l.ysippus, 
1:01)  ;  Otricoli  bust,  160  : 
Pergamene,  altar  to,  357  ; 
Verospi  bust,  160 ;  ot 
Selinus,  40. 

ZELXIS,  painter,  261,  304. 

Zygomala,  160. 


GRKKK     INDKX. 


'               '                   0 

Kai-ur,  lift,  H)2,  210.                       crai'i'?,  245. 

AHKli-anor),   ^28. 

Kap\ijcnor,  272.                                irnupoifToi-o?,  702 

Ally)    II  IN  larir;,  327. 

«aT«TTifiT<xroSi  '94-                       il'.Al.NOi,  332. 

d*pui?rjpior,  60, 

KfAt/JT),  267.                                      (TIJK.XT,  41 

aATi|pt?,  262. 

<ttA>)Tt?  CJTITOI,  147.                          i<cid«r,  108. 

o/i7rt\oriur,  158. 

KtpKlSf?,    1^2.                                                        C7«OTla,    51. 

f'r  KrfnoK;,  of  Aphrodite,  173.       rntr^o?,  271. 

or6piai'TOTroios,    195. 

K»jp,  29.                                                        (TTa^l'O?,  269. 

aj'0p<u7rorroio<r,  195. 

KIHIV,    102.                                                                OTei/iani,   24'!. 

mroft<non,   170* 

Kon-rra,  327.                                             (TTijAi;,  22  c. 

aTrofuo/xeio?,  210. 

ai  xopat,  174.                                      <TTOOL,  85  ;  (rroa  iroiitiAij,  86. 

A[pyfuo.-j,  329. 

Koptr^o?,  356.                                     (T</>ti66rq,  98. 

opyoi  AiSoi,  102. 

KopoirAdarai,  240.                             f'/)pny'<r,  336. 

'AppTj'fmpot,  66,  168. 

Ko<r^i>)T>j?,  238.                                    (7</>uprjAuTa,  28. 

ai'Aijrpia,  348. 

«OTwAi«o«,  873. 

auToi^io,  on  mirror,  355. 

Kpnrtjp,  267.                                        Tt^ifro?,  63. 

KplO(/)(.p09,    147,    247.                                TOpfUTOl,           TOpeUTlKI)          (/A" 

/3a<J>eI<5  XpvToi'.  "59- 

miafti?,  271.                                        Toreutic  art,    in    English 

HouAij,  236. 

Ki'Aif,  270,  275.                                    index). 

/3oucrTp(H/iT/cor,  290. 

Klirn     "48. 

i'Apia,  269. 

ra(TTepdx«ip«,  35- 

Afwitrit,  356. 

UTrixrKijnoi',  (,o. 

1'iyai'TOfiaxia,  167,213,  216. 
ypa^a*,     ypd«/><ir,      eypa<//ti, 

AtJKi.flos,  272,  276,    298,  307, 
312. 

Xoipf,  226,  319. 

277. 

Attfoi,  dpyi»i,  102. 

X<jA<ctu?,  363. 

yvi'ai(c<u»',  87. 

Aoytior,  89. 

Xpucroxo,,?,  363. 

^rj/ios,    233. 

pavrfloi',  73. 

i/'vx'i.  3'6- 

jiafov/jcpot)  190. 

/if'rotKot,  170. 

*f>  ~    '    88 

6opu«|)6pos,  192,  210. 

/uxpOT.'xrai,  371. 

'V«",  W 

<'y^l'Tp«TTpia,  2,2. 

rod?,  rfuf,  63. 



fKiftopd.  242. 

Niioj  anrtpos,  140,  153,  176. 

(JREP:K    iNscRirnoxs 

crxavrai,  77. 

QUOTED. 

«fTa<ris,  44. 

jdaroi',  foara,    19,    103,  112, 

f  TTl<rT)M°l'>   291. 

245,  246  ;  Aiyi.TTTia,   20. 

On  chair  of  priest  of  Diony- 

€JTiTa</>ia, 320. 

sus,  92,  93. 

jiri\u<Ti9,  270. 

oiKiK,  of  temple,  73. 

On   coins,    of  /Kgina,   327; 

tVoujo-u',  277. 

oiroxoi),  270. 

of  Arcadian  Confederacy, 

tOOpoi'u?,  246. 

•'lAmj,  272.                                              330;    of    Argos,    329;    of 

Ei!>Ta£ta,  236. 

OAYM  |  irosj,  330.                            Antiochus    I\'.,   334",    of 

K^'Ieenwv),  329. 

ufu^a<t>oi>,  267.                                   Athens,  328  ;  of  Corinth, 

e'</>f6pia>ids,  255. 

.'.jrolor,  74. 

327  ;    of    Kphesus,    329  ; 

t'xu'O?,  45. 

opX'ia-Tpa,  89. 

of  Sclinus,  332  ;  of  Thasos, 

{wo^ipof,  Ionic  frie/e,  52. 

TTfTrAn?,   167. 

329- 
On    gems,    338  ;    spurious 

, 

TTtpl/SoiJTOS,    '^02. 

signatures,  338. 

TjfiiSiirAoiflior,  174. 

TT.TaCTO!,   254. 

<  )n  mirrors    !  = 

OaAAoi/xipot.  170. 

n-poefipia,  9.!.                                       (In  plaques,  322,  324. 
7rpo0t<7is,  284,   2^6,  314,  318,       On  stcl;c,  136,  137,  227. 

HtOTOKOS,    l6l. 

322.                                                 On    statues,  statuette,    207, 

6vu.t\n,  90. 

n-poftro?,  235.                                       345,  348. 

7rpocric>;rioi,  90.                                On   vasts,    HrROtimus,    and 

i/ittTior,  254. 

jrTtpco^a,  6  i. 

Clitias,     277  ;     Dodwell 
vase,    288  ;    ,1'anatlienaic 

' 

Id'Aaifiiixos,   154. 

amphora,    298  ;     Musani1- 

Kaipd?,  -,09. 

n-i'fit,  273,  288.                                  cup  in  Louvre,  304  ;  "  Kc- 

Ka>i)4>opoi,   190. 

turn    of     S|  ring,"     Vulct 

(car&apos,  271. 

puroi',  274.                                            cup,  305. 

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